Handtubs and Hand Pumped Fire Engines

A Part of Fire Service History

Between the time of the bucket brigades in early colonial America and the coming of the “Era of Steam” fire engines along with the beginnings of full-time fire departments, the volunteer fire service originated and flourished. These were colorful times of brawn and bravery of the American fire service and brought about the traditions of community service and service to others before self. During the fledgling days of the volunteers and before the coming of the steamer (steam fire engine), an important historical question arises. What did these early volunteer firemen use to successfully fight fire?

The development and use of the hand-powered (manual) fire engine, or “Enjine” would institute the rise of the volunteer firemen. This new engine would provide for a more aggressive approach to fires and require the first establishment of trained fire companies. According to History Professor Lampe, this period “was the romantic age of the volunteer fireman and his elaborate hand ‘masheens.”1 These new “enjines” or “masheens” and the newly formed volunteer fire companies to staff them would create a burgeoning political force in the early days of the newborn republic that would become the United States.

In previous articles in this series, both “The Fire Bucket” and “The Age of Steam Fire Engines” have been covered. In the discussion of steamers, the author examined the political and manpower issues, along with the societal fire challenges that promoted the development of the steam fire engine, along with the beginnings of the career fire service. However, the predecessor the hand-engine, and the early days of the volunteers, played an important role. In reality, the time of the hand-pump engine would last from bucket brigades to well into the age of the steam fire engines.

This article will delve into the early days of the volunteer fireman and the new fire fighting “Enjine” which will be the prominent method of fire suppression for over 150 years, an important part of the development of the American Fire Service.

Engine or Enjine Defined
In the 1980 NFPA book Fire Terms, the word “engine” is defined as “a fire department pumper or pumping mechanical appliance.”2 The rest of the definition is more pertinent to a modern fire apparatus. A “pump” is defined as “a machine that changes the energy level of a liquid and forces it into, through, or out of something, as by suction or pressure.” 3 Though the definition of the term pump might be a closer fit for a hand pump fire engine, the firemen of Colonial times would adamantly call the apparatus an engine or “enjine.”

The Encyclopedia Britannica provides a brief historical perspective in their overall article on the term “fire engine.” They relate that:

Early fire engines were hand pumps equipped with reservoirs and were moved to the scene of a fire by human or animal power. For large fires, the reservoir was kept filled by a bucket brigade, but that method was inefficient, and the short range of the stream of water necessitated positioning the apparatus dangerously close to the fire.4
Early pumps for firefighting were similar to “force pumps” used by the Romans.5 Force Pumps are positive displacement pumps that can pump or force both air and water with each stroke of the pump cylinder. This would be important to the fire service as these pumps are self-priming.

The following is a general description of the way the early force pump worked. The pump is composed of two cylinders working in tandem with internal pistons that alternate direction (up and down) when the pump levers or arms attached to the pistons are actuated. The raised piston draws in water through a system of one-way valves that direct water flow (pressure) in one direction, while the alternate piston moves down and forces out water into a discharge pipe connecting the cylinders. With each stroke, one cylinder is forcing out water creating a constant jettison of fluid. Newsham added to his engine an air vessel “of copper of a spheroidal form” on the discharge that helped equalize the water flow making a continuous stream.6

The Fire Terms book does include as part of the fire service lexicon the term “hand tub” (but dropped it from later editions). It is defined as “a hand-operated pumping engine used by firefighters before the advent of steam and gasoline-driven pumping engines.” 7 The term “hand tub” actually better describes the early days of the development of hand pump fire engines, where the cistern or tub was filled by using buckets before the use of the draft or “draught” hose. Today, a variety of terms are used to describe the type of apparatus used to extinguish fires in Colonial times and the early days of the United States. From hand tubs to hand pumpers, hand-powered engines, or “enjines”, they all describe the apparatus used from the late 1600s to the days of steam-powered fire engines in the mid-1800s. A time period coinciding with the rise of the volunteer fire company.

Interpreting American Colonial Terms and Spelling
A word about the Colonial period regarding spelling and pronunciation. In some of the information presented in this article, the reader will find a varied spelling of some common words in Colonial writings. As an example, the word engine is sometimes spelled “Ingine” or “Enjine” in Colonial text. Also, some liked to refer to their fire engine machine as their “masheen” or “musheen” depending on the dialect. According to historian Ellen Holmes Pearson, “Although colonial Americans did not spell consistently, we should not assume that they were careless writers.” 8 She related that due to the mixture of languages and cultures in Colonial America, spelling rules were inconsistent. Even Noah Webster the developer of the famed American Dictionary of the English Language, at one point suggested machine be spelled the way it sounds as in “masheen.” 9

Along this line is the term “fireman.” Fireman was first used around the fourteenth century to describe “a tender of fire”, while in the 1650’s the term described a “‘furnace-tender’ of a early steam engine.” 10 A steam engine fireman was also called a “stoker.” In 1714 the term “fireman” took on yet another meaning to describe a “person hired to put out (rather than tend) fires.” 11 When quoting or referring to the old original text in this historical series, the original term “fireman” is used in a historical context instead of the current accepted generic term of “firefighter.”

It should be explained that early colonial American towns/cities did not have a community-wide fire department. Fire protection was provided by individual groups organized into firefighting units. First formed as a Fire Society and later to be called a Fire Company, such as an Engine Company or Hose Company. Though they would come together to fight a fire, they were managed as separate organizations, sometimes loosely structured under a community fire warden or the city officials. To confuse things the manufacturer of hand engines might be doing business as a commercial “company.”

For those who seek to do further research on the early American Fire Service, one will find several varied spellings and interesting terminology. While other original terms are now obsolete or “obsoletum terminum” today. Either way, this old terminology and pronunciation were characteristic of this unique cultural period and the fire equipment they used.

The Transition from Bucket Brigade to Engine Company
Initially, the only available firefighting method to the early American Colonists was the fire bucket being used as part of a bucket brigade that consisted of two lines of people stretching from the town well or water source to the fire. They passed buckets of water to the fire, where the water was thrown from the bucket onto the flames. The empty buckets were passed back by an adjacent line of people to the well to be refilled. This means of fighting fire was rudimentary at best. Historian Young, in his 1866 book Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades, describes this method as “the barbarous and rude plan of throwing the water in bulk from a bucket.” 12

Though the bucket brigade method of fighting fire was not very efficient, it was the only means of active firefighting available to the early American colonists. However, old inventions were being revisited in Europe and England that would dramatically change firefighting. This new device would be the handtub or hand engine. Curtis Peters, Board Chair of the Vintage Fire Museum, related that “the hand engine had amazing power and reach compared to throwing water with a bucket. Historically the development of the hand engine was a huge leap forward in firefighting technology.” 13 Finally people felt there was a way to control fire through aggressive extinguishment thus protecting lives and property. 14

The Newsham hand engine from London, England would be the first engine to arrive in the Colonies around 1678. By the late 1700’s the American Colonies would see the beginning upstart of the American hand engine manufacturing business, and the spread of hand engines throughout the colonies. This would spawn the rise of Volunteer Engine Companies.

Early Development of the Hand Fire Engine
Some early references indicate Heron, an ancient Greek mathematician, and inventor, was responsible for inventing a fire pumping engine.15 Heron, also called Hero or Heron of Alexandria, ostensibly taught at the Museum of Alexandria. Working around 62 AD, he may have built upon the works of earlier inventor’s notes that he came across.16

After these early developments in the ancient world, it appears that these inventions were almost forgotten. According to Ewbank, in his book A Descriptive and Historical Account of Hydraulic and Other Machines for Raising Water, “Fire-engines were nearly or altogether forgotten in the middle ages: portable syringes seem to have been the only contrivances, except for buckets for throwing water on fires.”17 In Europe in the 1500s hand pumped fire engines began to make a resurgence possibly first being used in Germany.18

The next improvement in hand-pump fire engines came about around 1670 in Amsterdam by Jan van der Heyden and his family. Jan Jansz van der Heyden (1637-1712) was a gifted artist and painter from Amsterdam. As a famous artist he also became an inventor-engineer, developing a new type of fire engine consisting of a “portable water pump with flexible hose.”19 These inventions were patented by the States of Holland in 1671.20 The reader may remember Van Der Hayden from a previous article in this series “The Development of Fire Hose, A Part of Fire Service History”21 where he was mentioned for his groundbreaking book on fire tactics called Brandspuitenboek (or Fire Engine Book) with the full translated title being: A Description of Fire Engines with Water Hoses and the Method of Fighting Fires now used in Amsterdam.22

Unfortunately, due to the Anglo-Dutch war, Heyden’s engine and new tactics were not well received in England.23 This was probably why the development of the hand pump engine in England and the American Colonies would not come about until the 1700s through the efforts of Richard Newsham an Englishman.

The Newsham Fire Engine
On December 26. 1721, London inventor Richard Newsham patented his Newsham-type hand-powered fire engine that would establish the base prototype for hand engines in England and the American colonies for many years.24 Richard Newsham was originally a pearl button maker in London, before patenting his new fire engine in 1721. He died in 1743 and his son Lawrence took over the business. Lawrence unfortunately died a year later (1744), and his wife and cousin George Ragg continued the business as Newsham & Ragg Engine Makers.25 The Newsham Engine developed a worldwide market and provided engines for 100 years.26

Newsham’s new type of “Engine” was a direct force pump type machine that was housed in a tub-like wooden box, approximately three feet by eighteen inches.27 The water “tub” could be lined with copper sheathing.28 It could be equipped with wooden wheels or carrying handles for maneuverability. The pump action was provided by two hand levers, one on each side of the engine, and the pump consisted of “a pair of single-acting pump cylinders which were 4 ½ inches diameter and 8 ½ inches stroke.”29 With a “stroke rate of 60 times a minute” on the hand-powered levers (brakes) “the pump output was 30 gallons” per minute.30 Though not comparable to fire flows today, this was an impressive flow rate for its time. The pump levers or brakes could be worked by two to ten men at a time.31 Though five men to a side would have been crowded on the pump levers of this early small fire engine.
The Newsham Engines were equipped with wheels, most commonly solid wood wheels, 17 inches in diameter, 2 ¾ inches thick, and bound with heavy iron hoops for tires. The axles for the wheels were made of iron and permanently attached to the bottom. In other words, the front axle did not swivel. Therefore to turn a corner it was necessary to stop, lift the front of the machine, walk the machine around on the rear wheels, and then set it back down pointed in the new direction.32 Future engines would have modified axles and crane-neck frames and an added “fifth-wheel” to allow large wheels and front axels that could turn or pivot. During its time, the Newsham Company would manufacture six sizes of engines.33

Early engines did not utilize a draft or hard suction hose for intake, and water to the engine was provided by a bucket brigade that kept the “tub” filled with water. The pump action drew water into the pump from the tub and was discharged through a top-mounted “goose-neck” discharge with a nozzle. An advantage of the Newsham engine, besides its maneuverability, was that it could pump “continuous streams with great force.” 34 Various pumps used in England up until that time “were able to send water out only in spurts.” 35 To keep the pump from being damaged by debris in dirty water scooped up by the fire buckets, the water went through a strainer of perforated copper sheet before entering the pump intake. 36

With this new type of engine that could be maneuvered through doorways, the engine was placed and worked as close to the fire as possible to have the greatest effect. Perhaps the rudimentary concept of interior attack before the use of fire hose. It should be remembered that linen and later leather fire hose was not being used in England or the Colonies in the 1700’s. The use of hard suction hose for direct draft water supply would not be used in the American Colonies until the late 1700s. The use of linen or leather fire hoses for supply and attack lines was not significantly utilized because of durability and pressure issues. In 1807, James Sellars and Abraham Pennock, of the Philadelphia Hose Co. No. 1, developed a method of fastening the seams of leather fire hoses with metal rivets instead of sewing the leather together. 37 This produced a durable fire hose that could withstand pump pressures, and soon was adopted throughout America. This dramatically changed American fire tactics. For more information on the development of fire hoses, see the FFAM Magazine article in this series, The Development of Fire Hose by author David E. Hedrick.

As will be seen in the next section, Newsham Engines would be the first successful hand-pump fire engines to be imported to the American Colonies in Boston in 1678. They would set the standard and be much copied by American inventors.

Early Colonial Use and Development of the Fire Engine
According to Paul Lyons, in his book Fire in America, one of the first records related to an American Colony’s built water pump engine was in a town record of Boston in 1653-54 stating “the select have power and liberty to agree with Joseph Jynks for Injins to convey water in case of fire.” 38 Lyons relates that there is conjecture that the “Injins” were never made. Paul Hashagen, in his article Firefighting In Colonial America, related that Jynks, a Boston ironmaker, did produce a firefighting device, but it was “probably a syringe type pump.” 39 It reportedly had little effect when used during the Boston conflagration of 1676.

Boston facing a sudden increase in incendiary fires and major conflagrations, began to look at ways to improve its firefighting capabilities. In 1676, Boston ordered a “Newsham” hand-pumped fire engine from England. There is some historical conflict as to when the engine arrived or was installed, but generally, a date of 1678 is accepted. 40 With this arrival of the first true pump-engine in America is considered by many historians as the founding of the American Fire Service, with the first firehouse to store the engine, and the appointment of the first (supposedly) paid firemen. 41

Today, it is amazing to think that the Boston Colonists had to wait over two years to have their fire engine built in England and shipped to America. This along with the entrepreneurial spirit of the American Colonists would soon create a prolific hand pump fire engine industry.

As time progressed, Boston was divided into fire wards overseen by a warden, and additional fire engines were acquired. The first volunteer fire society in Boston was established on September 30, 1718. This initiated the “colorful age of volunteer firemen, who were destined to play an increasingly important role in American history.” 42

Boston’s proactive steps at firefighting would make a great impression on a young future “Founding Father”, Benjamin Franklin, who was born in Boston in 1706. He would witness this development in Boston as a youth and emulate it in Philadelphia in 1736 by forming the Union Fire Company. 43 Franklin’s notoriety and the success of the Union Fire Company would inspire the founding of numerous fire companies within Philadelphia along with encouraging others throughout the colonies.44

In 1731, New York followed Boston’s lead and took delivery of two Newsham “enjines from London.” 45 With the acquisition of these two engines, New York formed the first engine companies, Engine Company No. 1 under Peter Ruger, a brewer, and Engine Company No. 2 under brothers John and Nicholas Roosevelt, local merchants.46

By 1743, New York had grown to the point it needed more fire engines to protect the city. This time they turned to a local cooper and boat builder, Thomas Lote, who had built “an American engine that could compete with the British-made Newshams.” 47 A difference in Lote’s engine was the position of the pump levers which were located at the front and back.48 The engine had polished copper fittings that instituted the name “Old Brass Backs.” 49 “Old Brass Backs” would be the first true American-made hand pump fire engine in the Colonies.

The American Hand Engine Manufacturers
Once the Newsham Engine demonstrated its improvement over buckets in firefighting in the American Colonies, “Fire Engines” (hand-pumpers) were the must-have piece of firefighting equipment for cities and towns. With the delay and cost of shipping a Newsham Engine from England, local citizen groups and governments encouraged artisans to build a local version of the new hand-pump fire engine to protect their community. This quickly developed into an opportunity for local craftsmen and entrepreneurs to enter into the fledgling fire apparatus business.

Though the building of a hand-pump fire engine did require some hydraulic and engineering knowledge, the manufacturing of these engines did not require the level of technical expertise that would be required for the later-developed steam-operated fire engines. A general iron and wood craftsman with the example of a previous engine to go by, could have made a duplicate engine. However, not all were successful in producing an effective fire engine that would readily sell outside their local area.

The actual number of hand-pump fire engine manufacturers of that period is somewhat lost to history. Some builders may have simply advertised as being in business or made a few engines, while a few on the upper end of the spectrum made over 500. 50 A number of these manufacturers changed names through various buyouts, mergers, and acquisitions. Some businesses would survive and transition into the age of steam fire engines and later chemical and motorized engines.

David Falconi in his book The Encyclopedia of American Hand Fire Engines, has compiled a listing of over 2012 hand engines that were produced by various manufacturers. 51 Based on other resources during the research of this article, four American manufacturers reportedly were leading builders of hand pump fire engines.

Major Manufacturers
Button Fire Engine Company – What would become the largest manufacturer of hand fire engines in the United States, had a varied beginning. John Rogers started business in Waterford, New York in 1832 when he constructed his first” hand pumper.” In 1834 Rogers sold his patents to William Platt and Nicholas Doe. 52 Lysander Button joined Rogers’ business in 1834, making improvements in the engine that would lead to the “Button Engine.” In 1841 he bought out Rogers to form Button & Company, transitioning to Button and Blake in 1857, and L. Button & Son in 1875. 53

The company was bought by George Holroyd in 1882, and then several companies merged to form the American Fire Engine Company, which would continue to build “Buttons.” In 1900 American merged with several fire apparatus manufacturers in Seneca Falls, New York, to form the International Fire Engine Company. 54 They continued to make “Button” hand engines, along with new steam and chemical engines. In 1903 the company folded and reformed as American LaFrance. The Button hand engine continued to be made in the early 1900s. 55 American LaFrance would be one of those unique fire apparatus manufacturers that would span the age from hand engines to steam fire engines to motorized apparatus. Certainly creating a long-lasting dynasty in the fire apparatus industry.

The Button Engine was made in many sizes, capacities, and styles such as “Crane-Neck” and “Piano-Box.” The larger capacity engines capable of producing streams reaching 220 Feet, required up to 60 men to operate the “brakes.” Button also offered a variety of accessories including polished nickel or brass fittings, and gold stripping and ornamentation. 56

Hunneman & Company (1792-1883) – According to Mason, in his book Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, Hunneman & Company was “the second-largest maker of hand-pumped fire engines in the United States.” 57 William Hunneman’s first manufactured engine was made in 1794 under a patent of Jacob Perkins, an inventor from Newburyport, MA. 58 Hunneman bought out Perkins’ patents and started producing engines. Over time his company increased the size of his engines, including larger pumps and wheels. His early engines “did not use a crane neck hook up to the front wheels.” 59 A pivoting front axle was attached to a board extended out from the front of the machine allowing it to turn. Hunneman’s early engines were all considered to be “bucket tub” types being supplied with water via a bucket brigade. Later engines would be equipped with drafting hose later to be called a “Squirrel tail.” 60

After Hunneman’s death, his business was continued by the family. Along the way, the company outlasted competitors and bought out another. One of his workers, George Perry, was sent to Canada and built Hunneman Engines in Canada for the Canadian market. 61

James Smith (1810-1864) – Smith started building hand engines in 1810 for New York City to replace their aging Newsham pumpers. As New York was going through a large growth period Smith built engines for the new volunteer fire companies. His company built approximately “500 engines” over time, and also manufactured “hose carriages and ladder trucks.” 62 Smith sold engines throughout the northeast and Canada.

One of Smith’s unique style larger engines was the “Shanghai,” so-called perhaps because of its “Pagoda shaped decking.” 63 The “Shanghai” was a powerful engine that was “a first-class, double-deck end-stroke engine with 9 ½” cylinders, 4” stroke and patent capstan and its brakes were arranged for alternating action.” 64 Being a double-decker, Firemen stood both on platforms on top of the engine and the ground to man the alternating set of brakes to pump this large engine. Because of its ability to provide large flows, in situations where water had to be pumped between engines to reach from a water source to the fire, this engine was placed first in line at the water source to provide water to all the others.

W.B. Douglas Company – Don Mason, in his book Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, names the W.B. Douglas Company of Middletown, Connecticut, as “the fourth largest producer of hand fire pumpers in the United States.” 65 This may be debatable, but Douglas was certainly a major manufacture of hydraulic pumps in his day making pumps for not only the fire service but industry and agriculture. The business made a variety of hand fire engines including small, “Garden or Estate Engines” for rural fire protection by property owners. 66

According to Mason, several fire departments “bought their pumps from Douglas and assembled their own fire engines.” 67 Perhaps this is the historical beginnings of the home-built fire apparatus industry that would come about in the 1950-60s with motorized apparatus and the burgeoning volunteer fire departments across rural America.

From this plethora of companies, there are still a variety of different manufacturers and styles of hand-pumpers that have survived to the present day. These well-preserved apparatus are proudly shown at numerous fire musters especially in the New England area today.

The Hand Engine and the Rise of the Volunteers
As has been seen in preceding articles in this series, fire was a major safety concern to the early American settlements. In the small settlements, a breakout of fire was an all-hands call to every citizen to assist in saving the community, usually through forming bucket brigades. Later major recognized figures like inventor, writer, and patriot Benjamin Franklin would call for better fire protection, with Franklin going a step further by helping form the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia, in 1736. 68 As communities grew along with local businesses, the burgeoning business class had a vested interest in the protection of their property regarding fire protection. They also had more flexibility in their work to be able to volunteer for community projects, such as fire protection.

The American colonist were proud of their freedoms and took civic duties as part of their service to support the community. The duty of the volunteer fireman was one of these well-respected civic duties that a citizen could perform. The fireman was well respected for their service and formed a strong political group. Fire Historian Kenneth Dunshee, writing about New York Volunteer Firemen of the day, related that:
The members of the fire companies came from all walks of life. The firemen themselves were a power in the city and wielded considerable political influence by their numbers and strong organization. 69

For some communities, one of the few perks besides the prestige of being a volunteer fireman was that they “received exemption from jury and military duty after ten years’ service.” 70 This is where the term “exempt firemen” comes from.

After the Revolutionary War, veterans returning to their community were looking for ways to continue their camaraderie and public service. For them “the fire companies of the post-Revolution filled the same place that veterans’ organizations fill today,” 71 The firehouse became their meeting place, and their auxiliary duties of training, preparation, and equipment maintenance “were as much a call to duty as were the alarms of fire.” 72 Along with this came the introduction of standardized uniforms and fancy regalia that identified them as members of their fire company. This carried over to the brightly painted and polished hand engines, sometimes referring to the engine as the “Old Gal.” 73 With the “color and glamour of a volunteer firefighter’s life,” it was no wonder that most fire companies had a waiting list of hopeful candidates wanting to be members. This desire to be a member also helped keep up esprit de core, work assignments, and the discipline of the company. Unfortunately, this would change over time. 74

As mentioned in previous articles in this series, three cities that began to quickly grow because they had the best harbors that enabled trade with Europe, were Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. With this growth came better fire protection and a prominence in their firefighting capability. According to fire historian Paul Hashagen, “These three cities, and the firefighters who eventually stepped forward to protect them, set the course early on as to the direction and shape the American Fire Service would take.”75
Several civic-minded “founding fathers” of what would become the United States served as volunteer firemen and assisted in making improvements in fire protection. George Washington (1732-1799), who would serve as commander in chief of the colonial armies in the American Revolution and later as the first President of the United States, served as a volunteer fireman in Alexandria, VA as a youth. In 1775 he purchased a hand pump fire engine from Gibbs of Philadelphia which he donated to the Friendship Volunteer Fire Company of Alexandria, VA, where he was an honorary member. 76

As the hand engines became larger to pump more water and increase effectiveness, the number of firemen required to work the “Brakes” increased substantially. Several manufactured “enjines” took 60 to 100 personnel to pump the engine at full capacity. This necessitated the growth of the fire company to have the personnel able to manually haul and then pump the apparatus. This need for large numbers of volunteers may have been one of the factors that would lead to the downfall of the traditional volunteer engine company when the larger groups became more unruly and unmanageable by their officers and city fathers.

Missouri Hand Engines
Missouri as the gateway to the west saw the influx of people and new businesses in the 1800’s. These growing cities and rural communities all faced the hazards of fire from congested populations, open flame for heating and cooking, and the predominance of wood as a building material. As the New England states had done to solve their fire protection needs, communities in Missouri would look to the hand engine as a means of protecting their citizens from fire. Though by no means a comprehensive list, brief initial research identified some information on the use of hand engines in the state.

St. Louis facing all the above problems formed their first volunteer fire companies around 1821 with the North Fire Company and the South Fire Company. 77 The Phoenix Company formed in 1825 was given charge of a hand engine called “None-Such.” 78 The Central Fire Company of St. Louis received a new hand engine from Philadelphia in 1832. 79 However, an archive photograph description references the engine in service from 1836 to 1860 but does not identify the manufacturer.
Other hand engines listed in reference materials include: an 1851 engine built by William Jeffers Co., Pawtucket, Rhode Island 80; and, an 1852, no manufacturer identified, a double-deck engine named Washington No. 3. 81

The Fire Extinguisher Company of St. Louis, MO in the 1870s built a unique hand engine. 82 The pump, transported on a two-wheel carriage, was slid onto the ground at the scene and supplied with a fire hose for water, it had no tub or wood basin. There is an example of this hand engine on display at the Jefferson City Fire Museum. 83
The Union Fire Protection District in Union, MO, was fortunate to recover and restore the original hand engine that served the Union Fire Department from 1890 to 1905. The engine was restored in 2007 and has a “piano-box” style tub and “squirrel-tail” draft hose. It was made by the R.L. Rumsey Manufacturing Co. out of St. Louis, MO in 1890. 84 In this instance the fire company’s founding date and the acquisition date of the hand engine were the same year.

The Hermann (MO) Fire Company is fortunate to have retained a number of their original historic apparatus and have them on display in their museum. They have a hometown-built “Consiquence No. 1” hand engine made by Ludwig Zieland, a local blacksmith in 1856. 85 Another hand engine is the “Washington” made by Jeffers that the Fire Co. bought from St. Louis. 86

Other cities in Missouri identified with hand engines were: Lexington, MO, with a Hunneman in 1847, 87 and Canton, MO, with a Hunneman in 1857. 88

The Color of the Hand Engine
What color was the finish and aesthetic appearance of the hand engines? It would appear that just like today where the firefighter and fire department have a staunch opinion regarding the color and appearance of their apparatus, so too did the early Colonial firemen and Fire Company. Research found little information on the finish applied in the manufacture of the early hand engines. Since photography had not yet been invented, it appears that the first “enjines” probably had wood finishes sealed with protective coatings such as wood oils (linseed or tung oil), wax, or lacquer. These would be fairly cheap and available with wood artisans. The brake arms or handles were made of oak “and were waxed and rubbed to a satin-smooth finish.” 89 Initial engines coming from the manufacturer had little in the way of ornamentation. However, this would soon change.

Just as today, the early American Firemen took great pride in their “enjines.” After arrival at the fire company, the new hand engine could be painted or decorated in several different ways. Because the town government only wanted to pay for essentials for a new engine, the local fire company would use their funds and donations to decorate the engines. It was common for the engine to arrive from the manufacturer “with but a protective coat of flat, neutral gray.” 90 The fire company would assign a committee to come up with a color and trim design for the engine to “dress her up.” 91 In addition to deciding on a paint color and any striping (pen-stripe), a “portrait or landscape” scene might be chosen to decorate the engine box panels. 92 Some of the popular colors found on New York “enjines” of the period were red, green, and black. 93 David Falconi, a hand engine historian, said that green was a popular color of hand engines up until about the 1850s. 94

Over time some manufacturers did begin to offer factory options to dress up their engines. As mentioned previously, Button Fire Engines offered options such as polished nickel or brass fittings, and gold stripping and ornamentation. 95 Later accouterments included a “hand carved mahogany frame, and an ornamental signal lantern with gilded eagle” on top of the cabinet box housing the pump. 96 These artistic improvements or embellishments brought elegance to the “old musheens.” The phrase, “all dressed up like a fire engine” was a “familiar American quotation” of the period. 97

Mottos of Fire Engine Companies
There is no doubt that the Volunteer Firemen of the early days of the American Fire Service were proud of their position of service to the community, especially the hand engine of their fire company. Besides the elaborate decorations of the engine, a classic Greek or Latin motto that reflected their selfless service and virtue became a prominent feature on the apparatus. According to Tim Winkle, Curator of the National Museum of American History, colonial Americans with only a limited amount of schooling “would have a passing familiarity with the Greek and Roman classics,” while the well-educated citizens and founding fathers were “steeped in Latin and Greek.” 98 Mottos had become prominent in the 1740s with colonial newspapers printing them in their mastheads reflecting the paper’s editorial position. 99 During the Revolutionary War, Latin mottos became even more popular, and also with the various fire companies.

Curator Winkle said that “volunteers selected a motto to summarize their service and the spirit of their particular company.” 100 Some translated early fire company mottos included: Washington Fire Company’s “Non Sibi Sed Omnibus” meaning roughly “Not for self, but for all”, the Resolution Hose Company “To Be Useful is Our Wish”, and the Fairmount Fire Company “Prompt to Action.” 101 The stirring of patriotic sentiment can be seen in some fire company mottos during the Revolutionary War, such as Independence Hose Company’s motto, “Our Country is Our Glory.” 102 There were some mottos found that had a somewhat humorous slant. Winkle related that one of the smallest handtub engines in the Smithsonian’s collection had a motto of simply “We’ll Try.” 103

Curtis Peters, Board Chair of the Vintage Fire Museum, said the mottos of the Engine Companies conveyed their attitude and commitment to their community. This is evidenced by the Museum’s 1855 Button hand engine that has the motto: “Our Duty is Our Delight.” 104

Working a hand engine

Early Engines
Early hand engines in the American Colonies did not have a draft intake. They were filled with water through a bucket brigade. Even later Newsham engines that were imported that had a draft intake did not use the feature because the principle was not adequately understood. 105

Depending on the period and community, when a fire was discovered the alarm would be sounded by a fire watch, in some locations called prowlers or rattle watch, later church or community building bells would also be used to alert citizens and the fire company of a fire. For more information on early methods of fire alarms see a previous article in this series on “Early American Fire Alarm Systems.” 106 From the fire notification, the members of the fire company would respond to the firehouse or storage location of the hand engine.

The firemen would organize into a team to manually haul the “Enjine” using the drive pole (wagon tongue) and /or hand ropes that unwound from reels to allow numerous members to grab hold and haul the engine, at the run. As mentioned previously early engines had solid-mounted wheels, and to turn corners it was necessary to stop and manually lift the front end to walk it around to turn the corner. Some engines had a “Drag Rope”, also staffed by members, to be used to stop the engine or to slow it down going down a hill. A young boy might carry a lighted torch or lantern to lead and clear the way to the fire.

Once on-scene, the engine would be positioned as close to the fire as possible to directly attack the fire. On an incipient fire, the engine might be positioned inside or at the door for direct pumping on the fire from the “Goose-neck” discharge nozzle mounted on top of the engine. A bucket brigade would be established to bring water from the nearest water source (well, cistern, or creek) to the fire engine. Water from the buckets would be dumped into the intake box on the back of the engine where it went through a brass sheet strainer into the base of the pump. Engine Company members would man the “Brakes” (pump levers) and begin a pumping action working the brakes up and down to a full stroke of the pump action to push air out of the cylinders and draw water into them. Some engines like the Newsham also might have foot treadles attached to the brake levers and additional firemen could stand straddling the treadles on the center of the engine (between the brake levers) and use their leg muscles to help cycle the pump. 107 With no valve on the discharge as soon as the pump self-primed, water begins squirting out the nozzle. Several members of the company would man the nozzle standing on top of the back of the engine straddling the intake box to direct the nozzle stream onto the fire. This must have been an amazing and confusing sight with all these people crowding around the engine near the fire. A Foreman (Officer) of the engine company would stand near the engine directing the firemen in their duties and adding encouragement to keep up the quick strokes of the brakes to maintain constant application of water on the fire.

If their efforts were not sufficient and the fire advanced they might have to re-position the apparatus further back from the fire to protect the members and save the engine. Several historical incidents were recorded where a hand engine was lost by a fast-moving fire. With a stroke rate of 60 per minute, the members on the brakes could only last a couple of minutes before they tired to the point they had to be replaced on the brakes. Other members would rotate to take their place or sometimes citizens of the community filled in if the fire wore on. In the switch out of members on the brakes, there was a potential of broken fingers or arms from the quick action of trying to release or grab the brake handle while in motion. While all this is going on, if the community had a fire society (salvage and protection) company, those members would be busy hauling out the property of the dwelling to save and protect it.

Let us assume in the above scenario the fire is successfully extinguished. In many instances, the grateful citizens or the Fire Company Treasurer would supply a cask of rum (alcoholic beverage) to revitalize the strength of the weary members of the company. Some fire companies soon considered refreshments, including alcoholic beverages, as a necessity at every fire. By the 1800s many fire companies employed a steward who showed up at each fire with a keg containing “gin, brandy, or whisky.” 108
Then it was time to return to quarters. The equipment of the fire company or companies would be sorted and recovered. If fire buckets of citizens were used, the buckets would be collected and placed at a local church for retrieval by the owners the next day. The fire company would haul their engine and any other equipment back to the firehouse. At the firehouse, the next phase of work began. The servicing of the pump (see pump maintenance section) drying of wood box or tub and cleaning/preservative care of other items. All put in readiness for the next fire call. At that point, the Firemen could return home pleased with their contribution to protecting the community and a job well done.

Sometimes tiredness or over-celebrating led to poor attention to the equipment, and on occasion, the city commissioners or fire wardens would inspect the equipment and find it dirty and un-serviced. In this case, a fine or suspension of the whole company would be instituted and the company required to “Turn Tongue In.” 109 The guide pole (wagon tongue) was turned with the tongue back under the apparatus (fixed axles had the tongue removed), disgracing the Fire Company for their dereliction of duty.

Drafting, Hose, and Relay Pumping
As time passed bigger engines, new technology, and techniques came into play, and better firehouses were established by the fire companies. All this changed the response and operation of the later days of the hand engine era.

Now, to be the first fire company member to the firehouse, many firemen started sleeping or “bunking” at the firehouse, at least several nights a week. 110 Some firemen slept beside the engine while other firehouses were built with a second floor for a meeting or social room. This provided a place for bunk space and the beginning of station manning. A fire call at night would start as described in the previous scenario. Firemen bunking out would open the doors of the firehouse, light torches, and lanterns, and begin to haul the apparatus. As other members arrived they would take their places on the reel ropes, manually hauling the engine at the run. Newer apparatus had “crane-neck” or extended front axles that pivoted so the apparatus could be turned easily. With the larger heavier engines in the later days of the hand engine era, horses could be used to haul the apparatus. This would set the stage for the later horse-drawn steam fire engines. However, many firemen thought the use of horses to haul their honored engine was an affront to the bravery and stamina of the firemen.

Later hand engines were equipped with a draft intake at the pump. A draft (hard-suction) hose would be carried with the engine to obtain water supply through drafting. On many apparatus, it was usual for the draft hose to be left attached to the pump and the hose folded back up over the top of the engine and held in place by a bracket or tube. This type of arrangement was called a “Squirrel Tail” because of its appearance. This draft hose allowed for drafting water directly by the engine from a local water source without the need for a bucket brigade to supply water. Curt Peters related that this was another major step forward in firefighting technology, “eliminating the need for a bucket brigade to supply water.” 111

The new development of leather hoses and their use in some communities also changed fire ground operations. The hose on a reel on the fire engine or two-wheeled hose carts might be attached to a “Tail Hook” on the back of the engine. 112 In some communities, there was a separate Hose Company. These would all answer the fire alarm as described previously.

The engine now did not have to set up as close to the fire as before with the use of a fire hose to take the nozzle off the “Goose-neck” connection on top of the engine and use the hose from the engine to the nozzle advancing it toward the fire. If a water supply was near the fire, the engine could set up at the water supply and use the draft hose to obtain water for the pump. In some cases there would be formal agreements between engine and hose companies that the hose company would partner with a specific engine, either supplying water or advancing hose to the fire.

For this scenario, the engine has a local cistern or well near the fire that they can draft from and set up at the water supply while advancing the hose, they brought to the fire for a direct attack. The engine still required a multitude of strong men working the “brakes” at a minimum of 60 strokes per minute to keep the nozzle with a hose supplied with water. As before firemen could last only a few minutes before being exhausted and replaced on the Brakes. The bigger engines had brake handles that were stored folded during transport along narrow streets and had to be unfolded once on scene. However, these longer brake handles or the new double-deck engines provided more room for firemen to take their place on the brakes. Some of these big engines (with larger capacity pump cylinders) required up to 60 firemen to adequately work the full capabilities of the pump.

Major Fire/Relay Pumping
In a different scenario, the water supply, a stream, is a long way away from the fire. To use this water supply effectively, several engine companies will need to work together to pump water to the scene. This will be the first development of relay pumping in the fire service. In an ideal situation, the largest capacity engine would set up at the water supply, and stretch their hose toward the fire. As the next engine arrives the first engine foreman would shout “Will you take our water?” 113 This engine would agree and either hook the hose of the first engine into its intake connection or simply place the hose end into the water intake box. The second engine would then stretch its hose further toward the fire. This process continues until the last engine is positioned at the fire scene, then gets in line and stretches the hose for a fire attack. This provided a sustained water supply to fight fire, as long as the firemen pumping the brakes along the line held out. With a fire hose used to advance the nozzle, the early beginnings of the principles of interior attack were being formed and instituted. The Fire Service was beginning to make headway on fighting the nemesis of fire. Sounds fairly straightforward, but in reality, it did not always go that way.

The desire to fight fire focused on the actual fire scene, and sometimes the first engine would go directly to the fire to take charge of the scene and hope the next engines would establish a water supply for them. However, rival companies might try and bypass a company in line. Also, rival companies working in a relay might try and out pump the company downstream of them by increasing their pump strokes and flowing more water than the engine in front of them could pass along, thus overflowing their water box (tub). This was called “washing” an engine and “was the greatest humiliation a company could suffer.” 114 This type of competition wore the firemen on the brakes out at a quicker rate and directed focus away from the actual mission of putting the fire out. In some cases with intense rivalry between companies, the members of the company about to be washed might open a drain on the tub and dump water on the ground instead of letting the box be overflowed, thus wasting water. In other instances, the firemen might start a fight between companies and the firemen abandoning the brakes to join the brawl.115 Episodes of fighting between companies were another reason for a “severe censure by the city authorities,” and the companies involved were ordered to “turn tongue in.” 116 It was certainly a disgraceful incident and not a proud moment in the history of the fire service for this to occur. Unfortunately, there are several documented incidents of brawls between rival companies during the later days of hand engines. This malicious and despicable behavior may have also been driven by the cultural change in the community and the fire service that was taking place.

With the construction of water supply systems in many communities in the early 1800s wooden water pipes just below the streets would provide fairly convenient access to water close to the fire scene in many communities. 117 The invention and installation of fire plugs and then fire hydrants in 1836, would increase quick access to water near the fire scene. 118 However, in some instances with poor water pressure relaying pumping might be necessary. In other instances with high-pressure water mains, Hose Companies could fight fire without the need of an engine. Creating a potential for more rivalry on-scene. For more information on the history of water systems and hydrants see the FFAM Magazine article, “The Saga of the Fire Hydrant, A Part of Fire Service History.” 119

The invention of a durable leather fire hose and its use added additional duties to fire response in the later days of the hand engine era. Either the engine company or a separate hose company would be required to manually haul the hose to the scene, and then deploy it for either supply or attack hose working in conjunction with the needs of the engine companies. After the fire, the hose would need to be picked up and transported back to the station for maintenance, oiling, and drying before being reloaded on wagons or reels. For more information on the history of Fire Hose see the FFAM Magazine article, “The Development of Fire Hose, A Part of Fire Service History.” 120

Maintenance of the Hand Engine
After use, the hand engine, the tub, intake, and pump cylinders would be flushed with fresh water to remove any contaminates. Metal mechanical moving parts would be lightly oiled. 121

After flushing the water box or tub would be drained and dried to prevent wood rot and rusting of metal components that form the tub. Also, water left in the tub could freeze in cold weather due to the firehouse usually being unheated in the apparatus bay. 122

To create a seal between the piston and pump cylinder, the metal piston is covered “with stout cupped leathers… so that the edges of the leather only are in contact with the interior of the pump barrel.” 123 When the leather becomes worn to the point it is leaky or loose it needs to be replaced. Periodic maintenance of these pump cylinder gaskets would be cleaned and treated with “neats foot oyl” (leather oils) to keep them from drying out. 124 David Falconi, a hand engine historian, said the leather piston pads would be removed, treated with oil, dried, and then reinstalled to keep the neats foot oil from corroding the cylinders. 125 The cylinders themselves would receive a coating of mineral oil to protect the metal from corrosion or rust.

If the tub or cistern is wood-finished, it would be painted inside at least every “two years to preserve it.” 126

Carriage wheels would be routinely greased, and if the engine had not been used during the month, the pump levers would be pumped “two or three times up and down that the water may keep all its leathern parts in order.”127

Historic Hand Engines Today
Thanks to numerous fire companies with the desire to maintain their history, along with museums and Veteran Firemen’s Associations, quite a few Hand Fire Engines survive to this day, many in pristine and working condition. Despite the numerous American hand engine manufacturers and that some engines were produced up into the early 1900s, antique hand engines faced challenges to survive. Though the hand engine did not have the amount of metal in them as the steam fire engines, during World War II many hand engines were scrapped for their metal parts just as many steamers were scrapped to support the war efforts. 128 Those hand engines that survive today are an important link to our history and traditions of the Fire Service.

Historic Preservation & Displays
Despite reference resources, it can still be difficult to identify the manufacturer and year date of a hand engine. Because many manufacturers were in business for only a short time or were bought out, merged, or changed names, a Fire Organization (Company) might have to seek a different vendor to perform maintenance or rebuild their apparatus. Hand engines usually require “overhaul every 8 to 10 years.” 129 Also, when a fire organization purchases a new bigger engine, they might sell or trade in their old one. The vendor who re-built an engine or re-sold it would put their manufacture plate on it, obscuring the engine’s actual manufacturer. A word on dating hand fire engines. Curt Peters of the Vintage Fire Museum said, “Fire Organizations were proud of their history and would paint the date their organization was founded on the machine, not the date the engine was manufactured or acquired.” 130

A historic display of the era of the hand engine is an important part of fire service history that should be highlighted in fire museums. The Vintage Fire Museum of Jeffersonville, IN, has five hand engines in their collection that span the period from an early 1756 handtub to a later large double deck “Jeffers” hand engine. 131 This type of display provides the public with an understanding of the technology that bridged the period between bucket brigades and the “Era of the Steam Fire Engine.” It also was an important time in the development of fire service culture and the beginning era of the Volunteer Fireman. Fire museum historians, curators, and docents should be highly knowledgeable regarding hand engine fire apparatus to relate to visitors the significance of the history and traditions of this period of the fire service.

Some northeastern fire engine companies that have historic roots from the colonial days have diligently maintained their history through the preservation of their original firehouses and hand engines. In some instances, members of the company bought the hand engines and kept them until eventually they were donated back to the fire company. These historic engines have been maintained or authentically restored by their original fire company or its descendant organization. They provide a unique centerpiece to initiate a discussion about early fire protection when conducting firehouse tours or public fire safety education. Some also participate in demonstrations and antique fire apparatus competitions.

Hand Engine Musters
As hand engines and their Fire Companies were phased out being replaced by newer types of fire apparatus, numerous veteran volunteer firemen didn’t want to give up their engines or the comradery and competition. Groups of firemen came together in the New England area to continue the legacy and comradery of the hand engine fire company by attending Fire Musters and competing with their hand engines. The first hand engine firemen’s muster was held in Bath, Maine in 1849. After that several local and state veteran firemen’s associations were formed, with a New England States Veteran Firemen’s League (NESVFL), being founded in 1890 to promote hand engine competitions and establish consistent rules and judging. 132 The NESVFL and other state leagues continue today to promote veteran firemen’s groups, the history of hand engines, and competitions.

Fire Collectors and Buffs
Today, there are groups of fire buffs or collectors that specialize in collecting fire apparatus. A smaller subset of this group are some lucky individuals who have acquired a hand engine for their collection. Because of their rarity, hand engines are probably considered the penultimate in fire apparatus collecting by many collectors. Besides the Veteran Firemen’s Leagues, there are several fire apparatus organizations, and among them is the Society for the Preservation and Appreciation of Antique Motor Fire Apparatus in America (SPAAMFAA). Though they focus on motorized apparatus, they also represent collectors of hand engines. The parent organization has regional chapters throughout the U.S. and Canada. They provide many publications and resources for the collector or interested fire buff.

One of the Fire Historians and Collectors that the author spoke with was David Falconi, Founder and Owner of Handtub Junction, USA. Mr. Falconi is a former on-call Firefighter in Southborough, Massachusetts. He restored and owns many hand engines, along with assisting in restoring several others. He owns the Union No. 1, a Hunneman Co. hand engine from 1867, which has won numerous competitions. Falconi said that he is proud to help preserve the hand engine and its important place in America’s Fire Service History. He related that besides the comradery and friendships found at antique hand engine musters, the gatherings also provide an opportunity to provide a great hands-on history experience for the public, as well as newer firefighters. 133

Resources and Cautions
Resources: Many fire service buffs and historians have greatly aided in the documenting of many of the fire engine manufacturers in America from the 1740s through the early 1900s. Among these are Don Mason with his Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide in 2000, and David K. Falconi’s The Encyclopedia of American Hand Fire Engine, produced by Handtub Junction, USA, in 2001.

According to these references and others, there appear to have been at least 150 documented manufacturers of hand-pump fire engines in America during the period. 134 There is a remarkable amount of paper advertisements and records that have survived over time in collectors’ hands, archives, and museums.

Cautions: Old hand pumping apparatus does not have modern-day guards or safety devices that protect from moving levers and pinch points when operated, and potential serious injury of personnel and citizens could result. One should remember that many Firemen of the period had fingers and arms broken or other injuries while operating a hand engine at a fire. Hand engines should be properly maintained and all working components checked. As with all fire apparatus, it should only be operated by properly trained personnel, and safety parameters established and observed.

Part of the thrill and historical learning experience is to conduct live demonstrations with hand-pumped apparatus for firefighters and the public. To put hands-on and pump a historic piece of fire apparatus is a wonderful experience that should not be missed. However, rudimentary training and safety lectures should be given along with constant supervision when allowing the novice to hand pump antique fire apparatus. Handtub Restorer/Owner David Falconi relates that when conducting a hands-on experience for the public they only pump for a short time (30 seconds), and participants are instructed that if their hands slip off the “brake” (handles) they are to step back and not try and grab the brakes while pumping is underway to prevent injury. Falconi said participants gain a better sense of history and the physical challenges the veteran fireman faced in doing their job. The participants will also “feel muscles they didn’t know they had.” 135

It should be noted that unless retrofitted, there are no shutoff valves on discharges of hand engines. The discharge or connected hose/nozzle of hand pumpers should be manned and the area of the anticipated water flow cleared before any activation of the pump levers (brakes) to prevent accidents.

It should be understood that this article does not provide the necessary knowledge and practical training experience to teach one how to safely operate a hand fire engine, nor should it be substituted for appropriate instruction and apprenticeship under the supervision of a qualified and experienced hand engine operator/historian.

The Legacy of Change and Traditions
The hand engine continued to be built and used even after the development of the steam pumper and chemical fire engines. Hand engines were in service and still being made into the 20th Century. Don Mason in his book, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, related that the last hand engine manufactured was a “Button made in 1926.” 136 They also saw some limited duty in World War I and II.

The introduction of the hand engine in colonial America was a major leap forward in firefighting technology initiating aggressive fire attack. Finally, people felt there was a way to control the hazard of fire through aggressive extinguishment, protecting lives and property. 137

According to History Professor Lampe, “volunteer fire departments reflected the spirit of cooperation so prevalent in America during the eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteenth century.” 138 These volunteer firefighters along with their novel hand engines of the period would through their exploits establish the history and traditions that have formed the foundation of the American Fire Service.

Perhaps the lyrics from a song from the mid-1800s best described the early American Firefighter who bravely manned the historic hand engine:

“Oh the fireman’s heart is bold and free, His motto is to save, He works without reward or fee, Hurrah! for the fireman brave. 139

Authors Comments
The author wishes to recognize and thank the fire service personnel and organizations for their assistance in the development of this article. In particular, the author expresses his appreciation to:

Steve Holtmeier, President Jefferson City (MO) Fire Museum; David Falconi, Founder/Owner Handtub Junction, USA; Curtis Peters, Board Chair Vintage Fire Museum, Jeffersonville, IN; Don Wilmesher and Union Fire Protection District, MO; and the University of Missouri Ellis Library/Lending Library for assisting the author in obtaining the inter-library loan of various research documents and archival materials.
The author also wishes to recognize all the various Historians and Authors for their extensive and invaluable work in Fire Service History through artifact notes, articles, and books that have been used for research purposes by the author and footnoted in this series. May their work continue to endure the ages and preserve the true history and traditions of the American Fire Service.

The A Part of Fire Service History Series Articles are copyrighted © 2023 by the author and are published under permission granted to the FFAM.

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Endnotes

1. A. B. Lampe, “St. Louis Volunteer Fire Department 1820-1850, A Study in the Volunteer Age”, Missouri Historical Review, Volume 62, Issue 3, April 1968, The State Historical Society of Missouri, p. 236.
2. Ralph W. Burklin, and Robert G. Purington, “Engine”, National Fire Protection Association’s (NFPA) Fire Terms, A Guide To Their Meaning and Use, NFPA, Boston, MA, 1980, p. 58.
3. Ralph W. Burklin, and Robert G. Purington, “Pump”, National Fire Protection Association’s (NFPA) Fire Terms, A Guide To Their Meaning and Use, NFPA, Boston, MA, 1980, p. 145.
4. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “fire engine”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Mar. 2013, https://www.britannica.com/technology/fire-engine. Accessed 6 September 2023.
5. H.B. Walters, “Water-Pump/Curators Comments”, The British Museum, Bronze / Catalogue of the Bronzes in the British Museum. Greek, Roman & Etruscan, BMP, London, 1899, website accessed August 31, 2023, https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1892-0517-1 .
6. Charles F.T. Young, C.E., Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades: A History of Manual and Steam Fire Engines, London: Lockwood & Co., 1866, p. 105, accessed through Google Books, https://www.google.com/books/edition/Fires_Fire_Engines_and_Fire_Brigades_wit/-YblbAAAAcAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=hand+pump+fire+engine&pg=PA335&printsec=frontcover.
7. Ralph W. Burklin, and Robert G. Purington, “Hand tub”, National Fire Protection Association’s (NFPA) Fire Terms, A Guide To Their Meaning and Use, NFPA, Boston, MA, 1980, p. 89.
8. Ellen Holmes Pearson, Associate Professor University of North Carolina, Asheville, “The Standardization of American English”, Teaching History.org, 2018, Website accessed September 3, 2023, https://teachinghistory.org/history-content/ask-a-historian/25489.
9. “Failed Attempts to Reform English Spelling”- “Masheen” instead of “Machine”, Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Merriam-Webster.com, August 29, 2023, Website accessed September 3, 2023, https://www.merriam-webster.com/grammar/spelling-suggestions-that-didnt-stick .
10. “Fireman”, Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2001-2023 Douglas Harper, website accessed September 3, 2023, https://www.etymonline.com/word/fireman#:~:text=fireman%20(n.),of%20a%20early%20steam%20engine.
11. Ibid.
12. Charles F.T. Young, C.E., Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades, p. 336.
13. From telephone interview with Curtis Peters, Board Chair Vintage Fire Museum, Jeffersonville, IN, by author on October 4, 2023.)
14. Ibid.
15. Joe Burgett, “40 Ancient Greek Technology and Concepts Still Used Today” (20 Fire Hose), Science Sensei, 2020, web article accessed Jan. 23, 2023 https://sciencesensei.com/40-ancient-greek-technology-and-concepts-still-used-today/21/.
16. “Heron of Alexandria”, Ancient Greece Reloaded, web article accessed Jan. 20, 2023, https://www.ancientgreecereloaded.com/files/ancient_greece_reloaded_website/great_persons/heron_of_alexandria.php.
17. Thomas Ewbank, A Descriptive and Historical Account of Hydraulic and Other Machines for Raising Water, Ancient and Modern; Including the Progressive Development of the Steam Engine. London: Tilt and Bogue, Fleet Street, 1842, p. 312. Accessed through Google Books Jan. 20, 2023, https://books.google.com/books?id=Mi8aAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&lpg=PR13&dq=greek+heron+fire+hose.&source=bl&ots=4cOrDjcphj&sig=ACfU3U2UYmvgu3RWQFkTfmOpAaiMkgCWIA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiKxYTAgtn8AhUnnGoFHY_1ApQ4FBDoAXoECAUQAw#v=onepage&q=greek%20heron%20fire%20hose.&f=false.
18. “A Brief History of Firefighting in Europe”, PELI Products S.L.U., Barcelona, Spain, Mar. 3, 2021, web article accessed Jan. 25, 2023, https://blog.peli.com/areas-of-interest/fire-rescue-industrial-safety/brief-history-of-firefighting-in-europe.
19. Susan Donahue Kuretsky, “Saving Amsterdam. Jan van der Heyden and the Art of Firefighting”, from the work: Urb’s incense Aesthetic Transformations of the Brennenden Stadt in der Frühen Neuzeit, by Herausgegeben von Vera Fionie Koppenleitner, Hole Rößler and Michael Thimann, © 2011 Deutscher Kunstverlag GmbH Berlin München, p. 159.
20. Ibid, P. 162.
21. David E. Hedrick, “The Development of Fire Hose, A Part of Fire Service History”, FFAM Magazine, Fire Fighters Association of Missouri, Warrensburg, MO, March/April 2023, Vol. 66, Issue 2, p 9-10.
22. Susan Donahue Kuretsky, “Saving Amsterdam. Jan van der Heyden and the Art of Firefighting”, p. 160.
23. Ibid, p. 162.
24. N.W. Goodman, MD, Inventing the American Fire Engine, An Illustrated History of Patented Ideas for Fire Pumpers, Fire Buff House Publishers, New Albany, Indiana, 1994, p. 10.
25. Richard Bissell Prosser, “Newsham, Richard”, Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900, Vol 40 Myllar – Nicholls, Elder Smith & Co., London, 1894, retrieved through Wikisource August 31, 2023, https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Newsham,_Richard .
26. Don Mason, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, self-published, available through Handtub Junction USA, https://www.handtubs.com/, p. 46.
27. Dennis Smith, Dennis Smith’s History of Firefighting in America, 300 Years of Courage, The Dial Press, New York, 1976, p. 7.
28. “Germantown’s Old Fire Engine”, The Philadelphia Press, Philadelphia, PA, Monday, January 10, 1898, p. 14. (Preserved newspaper clipping from author’s archives.)
29. N.W. Goodman, MD, Inventing the American Fire Engine, p. 10.
30. Ibid.
31. Dennis Smith, Dennis Smith’s History of Firefighting in America, p. 15.
32. “Germantown’s Old Fire Engine”, The Philadelphia Press, p. 14.
33. Charles F.T. Young, C.E., Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades, p. 82.
34. Dennis Smith, Dennis Smith’s History of Firefighting in America, p. 14.
35. Ibid.
36. “Germantown’s Old Fire Engine”, The Philadelphia Press, Philadelphia, p. 14.
37. Paul Hashagen, “Firefighting in Colonial America”, Firehouse Magazine, September 1998, Cygnus Publishing: New York, p. 74.
38. Paul R. Lyons, Fire in America, National Fire Protection Association, Boston, Massachusetts, 1976, p. 12.
39. Paul Hashagen, “Firefighting In Colonial America”, Firehouse Magazine, p. 73.
40. Herbert Theodore Jenness, Bucket Brigade to Flying Squadron: Fire Fighting Past and Present, Cambridge, Mass, 1909, p 100.
41. David Hedrick, “Early American Fire Service Leaders, A Part of Fire Service History”, FFAM Magazine, Fire Fighters Association of Missouri, Warrensburg, MO, May/June 2023, Vol. 66, Issue 3, p 9.
42. John V. Morris, Fires and Firefighters, Bramhall House: New York, 1955, p. 27.
43. Jack Campbell, “Benjamin Franklin, Fireman”, Journal of the American Revolution, April 21, 2022, web article accessed March 31, 2023, https://allthingsliberty.com/2022/04/benjamin-franklin-fireman/ .
44. Benjamin Franklin, The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, Dover Publications, Mineola, NY, 1996, p. 82.
45. Dennis Smith, Dennis Smith’s History of Firefighting in America, p. 14.
46. Ibid, P. 15.
47. Ibid, p. 16.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. Author compiled data from David Falconi’s “American Hand Fire Engine Builders”, The Encyclopedia of American Hand Fire Engines, p. 8-21; Don Mason’s Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide; and other references footnoted in this article.
51. David Falconi, The Encyclopedia of American Hand Fire Engines, Handtub Junction USA, Southborough, MA, 2001, p. 22.
52. Don Mason, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, self-published, available through Handtub Junction USA, https://www.handtubs.com/, p. 5.
53. David Falconi, The Encyclopedia of American Hand Fire Engines, p. 13.
54. Don Mason, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, p. 5.
55. Ibid.
56. David Falconi, The Encyclopedia of American Hand Fire Engines, p. 13.
57. Don Mason, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, p. 34.
58. Ibid, p. 49.
59. Ibid, p. 34.
60. David Falconi, The Encyclopedia of American Hand Fire Engines, p. 17.
61. Don Mason, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, p. 34.
62. Falconi, p. 20.
63. Ibid.
64. Kenneth Holcomb Dunshee, Enjine! – Enjine!, A story of Fire Protection, published by Harold Vincent Smith, The Home Insurance Company, New York, 1939, p. 25.
65. Don Mason, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, p. 15.
66. Ibid, p. 15-16.
67. Ibid, p. 15.
68. Jack Campbell, “Benjamin Franklin, Fireman”, Journal of the American Revolution, April 21, 2022, web article accessed March 31, 2023, https://allthingsliberty.com/2022/04/benjamin-franklin-fireman/.
69. Kenneth Holcomb Dunshee, Enjine! – Enjine!, p. 45.
70. Robert S. Holzman, The Romance of Firefighting, Bonanza Books/Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, 1956, p. 3.
71. John V. Morris, Fires and Firefighters, p. 56.
72. Ibid.
73. Ibid.
74. Ibid, p. 57.
75. Paul Hashagen, “Firefighting in Colonial America” Firehouse Magazine, p. 72.
76. M.J. McCosker, The Historical Collection of the Insurance Company of North America, First Edition, Breck Engraving Company, Philadelphia, 1945, p. 49.
77. A. B. Lampe, “St. Louis Volunteer Fire Department 1820-1850, A Study in the Volunteer Age”, p. 238.
78. Ibid, p. 240.
79. Ibid, p. 241.
80. Don Mason, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, p. 37.
81. David Falconi, The Encyclopedia of American Hand Fire Engines, p. 100.
82. Don Mason, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, p. 56.
83. From tour and review by author of Jefferson City (MO) Fire Museum with Steve Holtmeier, Museum President, 2023.
84. Information from the Don and Sue Wilmesher, Union Fire Protection District, Union, MO, Oct. 9, 2023.
85. Don Mason, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, p. 68.
86. Hermann Fire Co. Museum, Hermann, Missouri, Facebook Page accessed Oct. 10, 2023, https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=689610895313986.
87. David Falconi, The Encyclopedia of American Hand Fire Engines, p. 65.
88. Ibid, p. 103.
89. John V. Morris, Fires and Firefighters, p. 106.
90. Ibid, p. 104.
91. Ibid.
92. Ibid.
93. Kenneth Holcomb Dunshee, Enjine! – Enjine!, p. 12.
94. From telephone interview with David Falconi, Handtub restorer and Founder of Handtub Junction, USA, by author on September 28, 2023.
95. David Falconi, The Encyclopedia of American Hand Fire Engines, Handtub Junction USA, Southborough, MA, 2001, p. 13.
96. John V. Morris, Fires and Firefighters, p. 106.
97. Ibid, p. 59.
98. Tim Winkle, “I say “Always Ready.’ You say ‘Semper Paratus.’ “, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institute, September 15, 2016, E=Website accessed September 26, 2023, https://www.si.edu/object/i-say-always-ready-you-say-semper-paratus:posts_00da798b0c77a9212b1036d19e9e4c1a .
99. Jordan Taylor, “A Revolution In Mottoes: Newspaper Mastheads And The American Revolution”, Journal of the American Revolution, November 8, 2018, web article accessed November 26, 2023, https://allthingsliberty.com/2018/11/a-revolution-in-mottoes-newspaper-mastheads-and-the-american-revolution/.
100. Tim Winkle, “I say “Always Ready.’ You say ‘Semper Paratus.’ “, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institute.
101. Ibid.
102. Ibid.
103. Ibid.
104. From telephone interview with Curtis Peters, Board Chair Vintage Fire Museum, Jeffersonville, IN, by author on October 4, 2023.)
105. Kenneth Holcomb Dunshee, Enjine! – Enjine!, p. 12.
106. David E. Hedrick, “Early American Fire Alarm Systems, A Part of Fire Service History”, FFAM Magazine, Fire Fighters Association of Missouri, Warrensburg, MO, September/October 2022, Vol. 65, Issue 5, p 10, 12, 14, 16-23, 31.
107. Harold Vincent Smith, Enjine! – Enjine!, p. 14.
108. John V. Morris, Fires and Firefighters, p. 65.
109. Ibid, p. 112.
110. Ibid, p. 145.
111. From telephone interview with Curtis Peters.
112. John V. Morris, Fires and Firefighters, p. 103.
113. Ibid, p. 109.
114. Ibid, p. 110.
115. Ibid, p. 112.
116. Ibid.
117. Gene J. Kuhn, Editor, “Development of the Fire Hydrant Parallels Growth of Water Works”, Mueller Record, Vol. XXXIV, No. 6, May-June 1948, Mueller Company, Decatur, Illinois, p. 6.
118. G.G. Flexer, “From Fire Plug to Fire Hydrant”, Journal of the American Water Works Association, Vol. 58, Issue 11, November 1966, Download Wiley Online Library, p. 1422.
119. David E. Hedrick, “The Saga of the Fire Hydrant, a Part of Fire Service History”, FFAM Magazine, July/August 2023, Vol. 66, Issue 4, Warrensburg, MO, p. 8-10, 12, 34-40.
120. David E. Hedrick, “The Development of Fire Hose, A Part of Fire Service History”, FFAM Magazine, Fire Fighters Association of Missouri, Warrensburg, MO, March/April 2023, Vol. 66, Issue 2.
121. “Germantown’s Old Fire Engine”, The Philadelphia Press, p. 14.
122. John V. Morris, Fires and Firefighters, p. 112.
123. Charles F.T. Young, C.E., Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades, p. 105.
124. Ibid, p. 117.
125. Telephone interview with David Falconi.
126. Charles F.T. Young, C.E., Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades, p. 117.
127. Ibid.
128. Telephone interview with David Falconi.
129. Don Mason, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, p. 69.
130. From telephone interview with Curtis Peters.
131. Ibid.
132. From interview with David Falconi.
133. Ibid.
134. Author compiled data from David Falconi’s “American Hand Fire Engine Builders”, The Encyclopedia of American Hand Fire Engines, p. 8-21; Don Mason’s Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide; and other references footnoted in this article.
135. From telephone interview with David Falconi.
136. Don Mason, Hand Pump Fire Engine Guide, p. 5.
137. From telephone interview with Curtis Peters.
138. A. B. Lampe, “St. Louis Volunteer Fire Department 1820-1850”, Missouri Historical Review, p. 235 – 259.
139. “Music Had Charms”, American Heritage Magazine, April 1958, Volume 9, Issue 3, web article accessed Sept. 30, 2023, https://www.americanheritage.com/music-had-charms.