The Early Development of Fire Extinguishers

A Part of Fire Service History^©

Since the beginning of human civilization, man has been confronted with challenges to his existence and prosperity. Perhaps one of the greatest natural environmental threats has been that of Fire. Herbert T. Jenness, an early 20th Century fire fighting author, related that from the beginnings of civilization, man has been “confronted with the ever perplexing problem of successfully combating and subduing the life-destroying, property-destroying element –FIRE.”¹

To combat this natural threat to life and property, man began a quest to control fire and be able to quench its flames when needed. This quest would begin with a simple trial and error approach to eventually a scientific investigation into the physics and behavior of fire. This would lead our fire protection predecessors to seek a physical element and mechanism with which to apply it to extinguish fire. This study of fire resulted in the discovery of a variety of extinguishing elements and compounds, along with the invention of mechanisms or apparatus by which to apply the extinguishing agent. Ultimately this would lead to modern fixed fire protection systems and advanced firefighting apparatus to control and extinguish man’s natural adversary, uncontrolled fire.

However, the beginnings of fire protection started with modest attempts at the quick response and extinguishment of fire using a readily available apparatus, the invention of the fire extinguisher. This device remains today as a “first aid” response to fires, allowing citizens, workers, and firefighters a self-contained device to extinguish or check initial fires from becoming uncontrolled before the arrival of more advanced resources. This chapter of “A Part of Fire Service History” will cover the development of the fire extinguisher and the various extinguishing agents that would help protect citizens and society for multiple centuries.

It Started with a Flame
Originally fire was a naturally occurring process when the right conditions came together to create combustion, such as lighting strikes, lava eruptions, or other events bringing heat, air, and combustible materials together in the necessary physical composition to create ignition and a resulting flame (fire). Our early ancestors did not invent fire, but discovered it and quickly determined its benefits of heat, light, and a means of changing materials and environment. There are various myths about the roots of fire. In some cases “fire keepers” of tribes were responsible for keeping a small flame burning to be available to kindle cooking or heating fires when needed. At some point, our ancestors did invent the first means of starting a fire such as friction using a “fire drill” or bow that rotated to create heat friction, or the use of “sulphurious firestone (iron pyrite) and flint” struck together to make a spark or ignition source to ignite kindling.²

Unfortunately, at some point in the development of human civilization, man also quickly discovered that uncontrolled fire could be hazardous to life and the environment. As various groups came together to form communal societies the risk of devastation by fire grew exponentially. The use of open flame for light, heating, and cooking along with the initial use of combustible wood for building habitats close together created a potentially hazardous environment for spreading flame.

Thus began man’s quest for a readily available tool to quickly extinguish a small uncontrolled fire to prevent it from spreading and endangering life and property. Though dirt and sand might smother out a campfire it didn’t work well on a fast-spreading fire. Water was found to be a good extinguisher of fire, but a mechanism or tool was needed to effectively apply it to a fire. That tool would be developed and refined throughout the ages, along with various chemical agents to create a portable, dependable fire safety device, the fire extinguisher.

Fire Department of New York (FDNY) Fire Chief John Kenlon, writing in the previous century, related that initially even history’s biggest fires “could have been extinguished in a few seconds by the cool-headed and well-directed work of one man armed with but a single pail of water, had he arrived in time.”³ Thus illustrating the concept of the need for a quick initial extinguishment of fires at the start or the need for a readily available fire extinguishing device.

Dr. Stephen Hawking, world-renowned theoretical physicist and cosmologist, was quoted as saying “When we invented fire, we messed up repeatedly, then invented the fire extinguisher.”⁴ His original point was, with the ever-increasing development of technology, man needs to also develop the wisdom with which to use it. His analogy is also an accurate depiction of man’s efforts, some successful and some not, to find a means of controlling or extinguishing fire that threatens our lives and environment. This relates to the mission of the American Fire Service, the protection of life and property. However, in this chapter, the reader will find that throughout the ages initial fire protection was and is the responsibility of everyone. Or, as stated by the United States Fire Administration’s national safety initiative, Fire Is Everyone’s Fight®.⁵

From this perspective, we will see that historical development and use of fire extinguishers were interconnected to the firemen, industry, and the citizens of the period.

Portable Fire Extinguisher Defined
In defining the term “fire extinguisher” in a historical context, it would be best to refer to a respected and knowledgeable reference source of the past. The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, edited by William Dwight Whitney, PhD, LLD and first published in 1895, defines the “fire extinguisher” as:
An apparatus designed for immediate and temporary use in putting out a conflagration by means of a small stream of water or of water mingled with carbonic-acid gas. … Such extinguishers are usually made portable, to be carried in the hand or upon the back, or are mounted upon a light truck to be drawn by a horse; but they are also made in heavier forms, when they are commonly called chemical fire engines.⁶

The definition also included a description of a soda-acid type fire extinguisher, which was a common extinguisher of the period when this definition was written. Because of this, the definition does not provide a broad enough definition to adequately cover the types of devices and agents that could be used for fire extinguishment at the time.

In the 1980 NFPA book Fire Terms, the term “fire extinguisher” is defined as “a portable hand held or wheeled first aid device designed to extinguish small fires. It is filled with an extinguishing agent such as water, halon, CO2, dry powder, etc.⁷

This later definition is more inclusive of various types of extinguishers and extinguishing agents. However, it does not cover the historical development or the mechanism of extinguishment for these firefighting devices.

So based on the guidance of these reference sources, in this chapter, we will attempt to define historical fire extinguishers as:

A hand portable or wheel transported device designed for quick response use in extinguishing incipient to intermediate fires by fire fighting personnel or minimally trained public, or Industrial workers. Extinguishers are specific to types of fire they may be used to extinguish (in modern times classified as class A, B, or C) based on the characteristics of extinguishing agent used in the device and may extinguish fire through cooling, smothering, encapsulation, and/or interruption of the chemical combustion process. Obsolete extinguishers are considered outdated and no longer meet current safety standards or requirements for in-service fire extinguishers, but may have historical significance in illustrating the early development of firefighting devices and extinguishing agents.⁸

Fire Behavior
To better understand how fire extinguishers work in extinguishing fire, the science of fire needs to be reviewed. Fire or flaming combustion is a process where the necessary elements come together in a sufficiently intense reaction to produce ignition, resulting in heat and light (flame). Usually, the combustion process is explained using the “Fire Triangle.” The fire triangle is an old fire model using a geometric shape (triangle) that illustrates the three elements necessary for a fire to occur: “fuel, oxygen, and heat.”⁹ By removing any one of these elements the process is obstructed and the fire goes out. One way that extinguishing agents work is by inhibiting the combustion process by acting on one of the elements, such as cooling, displacing air, or removing fuel. However, over time researchers studying fire behavior discovered that “an uninhibited chemical chain reaction must also be present for a fire to occur.”¹⁰ This discovery created a new fire model, that of the “Fire Tetrahedron.” The fire tetrahedron is a three-dimensional geometric (three sided pyramid) “model of the four elements required by a fire: fuel, heat, oxygen, and uninhibited chain reaction; each side is contiguous with the other three.”¹¹ This is better defined how some extinguishing agents were effectively putting out a fire by interrupting this chemical chain reaction, such as dry chemical agents.

Later in this chapter, in the section on Underwriters Laboratories, the classification and rating of fire extinguishers will be discussed related to fire behavior.

First Fire Fighting Devices
As mentioned previously, early man found water to be a good extinguishing agent for fires. Unfortunately, initially, the mechanism or tool to apply water on a fire was limited to some type of container, such as a bucket, dumped on a fire.

A new innovation for putting water on fire occurred around 400 BC with the use of a leather bag of water connected to an oxen gut for a hose. By compressing the bag, water was forced through the hose for firefighting purposes. One of the earliest references to this story comes from The New American Cyclopedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge published in 1872. In a passage explaining the early concerns of dealing with building fires in ancient Rome, it is stated that: “Apollodrus the architect, perhaps, was the first to suggest the use of a kind of hose, in recommending for the conveyance of water to high places exposed to fiery darts the use of the gut of an ox having a bag filled with water affixed to it.”¹²

Around 200 BC, Ctesibius, a Greek Physicist who would be the first head of the Museum of Alexandria, developed a number of force pumps.¹³ Though there is some historical dispute as to who first invented the hand siphon-squirt a number of sources credit Ctesibius.¹⁴ This device was a hand-operated pump that siphoned water from a water source through a nozzle and dispersed it back through the nozzle using a plunger mechanism and was referred to as a “syringe” or “squirt”. It could be used for a variety of purposes including firefighting. This seems to be the only early mechanism that saw consistent use as a firefighting tool up through the Middle Ages into early American Colonial times.

In 6 AD, Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus established a permanent firefighting force to protect the City of Rome.¹⁵ This force called the “Cohortes Vigilum” (civil servants of watchmen) was an organization of 3,500 men quartered in seven barracks dispersed across the city. They were equipped with mainly buckets, sponges, and brooms. They may have also used a catapult or crossbow to fire “vessels of water or vinegar into burning buildings to put them out.”¹⁶

Heron, an ancient Greek mathematician and inventor, was responsible for inventing another type of fire pumping engine.¹⁷ Heron, also called Hero or Heron of Alexandria, allegedly taught at the Museum of Alexandria. Working around 62 AD, he may have built upon the works of earlier inventor’s notes that he came across.¹⁸ Heron had a number of inventions that worked with water or steam pressure and his water engine may be the first mechanical fire-extinguishing device.

Unfortunately, the use or building of these fire extinguishment devices seems to have been lost in history. According to Ewbank, in his book A Descriptive and Historical Account of Hydraulic and Other Machines for Raising Water, “Fire-engines were nearly or altogether forgotten in the middle ages: portable syringes seem to have been the only contrivances, except for buckets for throwing water on fires.”¹⁹

So for a time man returned to the old reliable method of using water-filled buckets as the means of extinguishing fires. This was equally true in the early days of the American Colonies, where resources were few.

Fire Buckets
Initially, the only available firefighting method to the early American Colonists was the fire bucket being used as part of a bucket brigade that consisted of two lines of people stretching from the town well or water source to the fire. They passed buckets of water to the fire, where the water was literally thrown from the bucket onto the flames. The empty buckets were passed back by an adjacent line of people to the well to be refilled. This means of fighting fire was rudimentary at best. Historian Young, in his 1866 book Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades, describes this method as “the barbarous and rude plan of throwing the water in bulk from a bucket.”²⁰

For more information on fire buckets and bucket brigades, refer to the chapter “The Fire Bucket – A Part of Fire Service History”, in FFAM magazine, November/December 2021, Vol. 64, Issue 6.

Though the bucket brigade method of fighting fire was not very efficient, it was the only means of active firefighting available to the early American colonists. However, old inventions were being revisited in Europe and England that would dramatically change firefighting. Along with the development of new fire extinguishing devices for firefighters, such as the invention of the hand-tub or hand-engine that would dramatically change fire fighting.

In his book Bucket Brigade to Flying Squadron: Fire Fighting Past and Present, Herbert Jenness related that “it is the endeavor of all firemen to find every arrangement that will ensure the application of water or chemicals upon a fire in its early stage.”²¹ In the early days of America it was understood that a major fire or conflagration could be prevented by taking quick action in the beginning phase of the fire using buckets of water or various types of hand pumps.

Thus began the quest for a readily available portable fire extinguisher. Various inventors would experiment with a variety of concepts.

Fire Extinguisher Development
Though not something one would think of as a portable fire extinguisher, one of the first self-contained fire extinguishers developed was in 1715 by Zacharias Greyl, a silver engraver from Ausburg, Germany. His invention was a fire extinguisher bomb. It consisted of a water-filled cask with a metal box inside containing two pounds of gunpowder.²² The gunpowder was connected by a fuse that passed through the top of the cask. Thrown in a fire, the fuse lit and ignited the gunpowder exploding the cask and dispersing the water, cooling and smothering the fire. Though it was successfully tested and extinguished the fire, Greyl seems to have been overlooked in history.

The person who usually gets the credit for a remarkably similar device is Ambrose Gottfried-Hanckwitz (1660–1741), a German-born apothecary who became a British chemist²³ He patented a similar fire extinguisher bomb in 1723.²⁴ Several versions of this type of extinguisher were made including a “fixed” fire protection system hung in a building that would automatically be set off by a fire in the building lighting the fuse. Smaller portable ones could be thrown into the fire. Though it was said to have had some success, it was not an ideal extinguisher.

Chemical Extinguishers
The first hand held chemical fire extinguisher is credited to English inventor Captain George Manby.²⁵ The extinguisher called the “Extincteur” consisted of a three-gallon cylinder containing a solution of water and potassium carbonate (called pearl ash) expelled by compressed air. This produced a soapy-like water-based solution. Reference sources vary as to the date of this invention, sometime between 1813 and 1818, and not much is known today about the actual design of this extinguisher.

Philippe Francois Carlier, a French inventor, eliminated the need for a source of compressed air by developing a solution that would create its own pressure to discharge the extinguishing agent through a chemical reaction. He used a water solution containing sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and mixed it with tartaric acid.²⁶ Tartaric acid, also called dicarboxylic acid, is a natural acid found in foods such as grapes and can be concentrated.²⁷ This combination when mixed “generated copious amounts of carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), soon led to the ‘soda-acid principle’ of fire extinguishment.²⁸ Carlier and his collaborator, Alphonse Vignon, French Corp of Engineers, sold the American rights to the extinguisher to Dawson Miles of Boston, who somehow had his name added to the American patent.²⁹

A brief comment needs to be made about patents and patent rights regarding early fire extinguishers. Dawson Miles who bought the American patent rights subsequently sold them, exclusive of New England, to the Babcock Company. The Babcock Company has been discussed in a previous chapter in this series on chemical fire engines. Babcock would become a major manufacturer of fire extinguishers and chemical fire engines. However, this growing extinguisher industry created many new modifications that would institute new patents which entrepreneurs would use as justification to start up rival fire extinguisher companies. During the early 1800s, there were numerous patent fights and lawsuits, along with licensing rights disputes.³⁰ Researchers will find a large number of manufacturers and dealers of the time selling similar appearing fire extinguishers, muddling part of the history of the development of the fire extinguisher.

Some extinguisher variations in soda/acid fire extinguishers simply differed on how the acid was mixed with the soda solution. The glass bottle holding the acid might have a device to shatter it, others rotated the bottle dumping the contents, while the most common extinguisher seems to be the design where the container itself was turned upside down which released a lead stopple allowing the acid to dump and mix with the soda solution without any other mechanical mechanism to activate it.

Perhaps the best description of the typical soda-acid fire extinguisher of the time was described by R.O. Matson in Fire Engineering magazine in 1926. He said:

The soda-acid extinguisher consists essentially of a cylindrical tank of approximately three gallons capacity, with hose and nozzle attached, and an acid bottle supported in a metal cage within the tank. The tank contains two and one-half gallons of water in which is dissolved one and one-half pounds of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCOs), and the acid bottle approximately four (liquid) ounces of commercial sulphuric acid (H2S04). Soda-acid extinguishers are of two types: The loose stopple type contains an open necked bottle and is operated by inverting; the break bottle type contains a sealed acid bottle and is operated by shattering the acid bottle by means of a plunger extending through the extinguisher cover. Upon operation the acid flows from the acid bottle and enters into a chemical reaction with soda, and as a result carbon dioxide gas (C02) is formed under pressure. It is this gas which causes the water to be discharged through the hose and nozzle.”³¹

This type of portable fire extinguisher would be quickly adopted by the American populace, industry, and fire service as a quick initial fire response. By 1868, the Fire Department of New York (FDNY) had soda-acid fire extinguishers placed in each fire house. They could be grabbed by firemen who would run to local neighborhood fires and extinguish the fire during the incipient state while awaiting the arrival of the fire apparatus.³² Boston took the next step by placing a fire extinguisher wagon in service “carrying ten hand operated soda-acid extinguishers…it was designated ‘Extinguisher Co. No. 1’ “.³³ This concept would be quickly transfigured by American industry into the first Chemical Fire Engines.

By the early 1900s, soda-acid fire extinguishers could be found in government buildings, schools, businesses and industry as the first line of protection against fire. The extinguisher could be recharged by janitorial or maintenance staff following simple procedures using stock-piled compounds or from apothecary shops. They worked fairly well on ordinary combustible fires, the more common type of fire at the time, though they were not safe to use on electrical fires. The extinguisher was approved by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. as a “2 ½ Gallon Hand Fire Extinguisher, Classification A-1” for their time. They were factory-tested to withstand 350 psi of pressure. However, they did have drawbacks. There was no shutoff on the discharge hose, so once activated the discharge of extinguishing agent could not be shut-off. Poor maintenance and testing over time affected its performance. Lack of maintenance such as routine stirring of the soda water solution could create settling and caking of the soda which could create poor mixing of the acid when activated. This could create an acidic solution that could deteriorate clothing and fabrics and irritate skin. Over time the riveted copper tank could deteriorate from chemical contact. This along with the possibility of a clogged discharge hose could cause the cylinder to over-pressurize and catastrophically fail when charged for use on a fire. The author has heard several stories related by firefighters from the 1950s and 60s that these extinguishers hung openly on walls in schools and were involved in malicious activities of some students. The kids would pack chewing gum in the nozzle that would harden over time into a plug or jam a pencil in the nozzle creating a blockage that would affect the extinguisher’s ability to be used or create an overpressurization when used either blowing the hose off the extinguisher or rupture the canister. Because of safety concerns, in 1969 the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) banned the manufacture or use of soda acid extinguishers, as well as several other extinguisher types. Also, Underwriters Laboratories delisted the certification of this extinguisher.³⁴

Though the soda-acid fire extinguishers can no longer be used, this vintage piece of firefighting equipment is desirable as a fire service collectible. Fire museums have them as part of displays of historic fire protection devices, illustrating the evolution of extinguishing methods over time. Collectors display them as antiques or convert them into household items such as lamps. Once cleaned and polished, these extinguishers have a bright shiny appearance and vintage or steam-punk look that is appealing to many people as well as fire service memorabilia collectors.

Usually because of time and handling, these extinguishers are found empty. However, when found, they should be treated as potentially loaded until verified by a qualified person. Any remaining residue or ext. agent should be properly disposed of by removal and cleaning utilizing a qualified technician following current environmental regulations.

The Carbon Tet Chemical Extinguishers

Glass Fire Grenades
A decorative fire extinguisher device came into use in the late 19th Century with the introduction of the glass fire grenade. However, some historians say the concept can be traced back to the Roman Empire.³⁵ In Rome a pottery jug filled with water could be thrown on the fire and made a basic fire extinguishment device. The first fire-extinguishing grenade was patented in 1863 and was followed by more device patents.³⁶ This spawned a plethora of manufacturers producing these fire devices for both home and industrial applications.

The first glass fire grenades were made of decorative colored glass with a flat bottom and a ball or orb shape with a bottleneck for filling. Though sizes varied, an example “Wheaton” manufactured glass grenade had an orb that was approximately 3 ½” in diameter with a 1 ½” long neck and stood 6” tall. Generally, there was some design embossed on these early glass grenades including ribbed design, stars, or patriotic eagle. The design and color of the glass made them a decorative piece of bric-à-brac art for display in the home. The bottles were filled at the factory and sealed with a cork and covering wax seal. The home devices were designed to be set on a shelf or hung in a wire bracket. In case of fire, they could be thrown at the base of the flames shattering the glass and dispersing contents, or break the neck off by striking on a hard edge and sprinkling the solution over the flame.

Early on the fire grenades were filled with water and sometimes other chemicals. A common mixture would have been salt water (to prevent freezing) and ammonium chloride. The theory was that the ammonium chloride when heated would produce fumes to aid in suppressing the fire.³⁷ With these “fire grenades” only containing about 1 to 2 cups of water solution (depending on size), their effect on a fire would have been minimal.

Some fire grenades were filled with a dry powder compound instead of a water solution. The Larkin Company produced a powder-filled grenade that was to be used by pouring the powder in a swirling motion above the fire thus extinguishing it.³⁸

Around 1900, manufacturers of water solution fire grenades switched to using “carbon tetrachloride, sometimes called carbon tet, or CTC.”³⁹ Carbon Tetrachloride is a liquid at room temperature and becomes a gas when heated. The gas has a high density and therefore sinks to the ground to supposedly smother the flames. At the time carbon tet was a common industrial chemical used in various processes, such as dry cleaning and degreasing. However, over time it was discovered that exposure to the chemical can create health problems including cancer through inhalation or skin absorption.⁴⁰ And if this wasn’t bad enough when heated above 200 degrees Celsius, carbon tetrachloride “reacts with water to form phosgene gas.”⁴¹ Despite limited effectiveness and potential health hazards, the chemical was used in the manufacture of extinguishers up until the 1950s.

In 1954 the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) listed in its Fire Protection Handbook that the “hand grenade fire extinguisher was no longer acceptable to the Underwriters Laboratory.”⁴²

For industrial applications, manufacturers designed a different style of glass fire grenade. Designed of simple clear or frosted glass as a ball or “teardrop” shape, and completely sealed. They were hung in wall or ceiling brackets that had a heated activated pin or bracket so that when the temperature rose to a certain point in the room from fire the spring-loaded pin would release and shatter the glass, or the bracket would tip and release the glass to shatter on the floor. Because of this feature, they were said to be an “automatic fire extinguisher.” The wall-mounted grenades could also be removed from the bracket and thrown at the fire as an option. The Red Comet Company, “based in Littleton, Colorado, cornered a large piece of the market with their trademark red orbs.”⁴³ Other companies such as AutoFyrStop in Philadelphia had both automatic and ornamental grenades like “Shur-Stop.”⁴⁴ Again these later produced fire grenades were usually filled with carbon tet, and their fire protection effectiveness was debatable.

The glass fire extinguisher grenades, especially the more ornate ones, are highly collectible both as historic fire device containers and as examples of Victorian glass art. However, there are reproductions sometimes sold as antiques. Reproductions produced for legitimate sale, such as “Harden Star Fire Grenade Extinguishers” are usually marked with the letter “R” on the base.⁴⁵

Pyrene hand-pumped extinguisher
Regarding the fire extinguishing agent carbon tet, the Pyrene Manufacturing Company in Delaware would patent in 1910 a new type of fire extinguisher using this agent.⁴⁶ Their style of extinguisher was a small cylinder of chrome or brass with an internal sliding pump mechanism and handle that forced the carbon tet out a built-in nozzle on the opposite end of the cylinder from the pump handle.⁴⁷ This was a fairly effective extinguishing mechanism (discounting the health hazard that was unknown at the time). The CTC agent was vaporized by the fire excluding oxygen and interfering with the chemical reaction.⁴⁸ It became a popular extinguisher in its time for the home, as well as optional safety equipment for the new automobiles that were being produced. This use as a fire safety device on automotive vehicles lasted up through and beyond World War II. Numerous photos of military vehicles of the period show these brass Pyrene-style pump extinguishers strapped in brackets on the side or floorboard.

Pump Tank Water Fire Extinguishers
These types of extinguishers consisted of a water tank and incorporated a hand-operated siphon or force-type pump to pick up water from the tank or a bucket and discharge it through a nozzle onto a fire. First used as a bucket pump in agricultural situations it quickly was adopted to extinguish home fires. Later variants were specifically made and sold as fire extinguishers by numerous manufacturers. The fire extinguisher was usually made of a copper riveted tank sized to contain 2 ½ to 5 gallons of water, with a submersed hand force pump (bicycle style pump). Its advantage was that it could be easily filled with water to recharge. Using water as the extinguishing agent it was used for extinguishing ordinary combustibles. In cold climates and locations where the water in the extinguisher might freeze, an anti-freeze fluid (sometimes referred to as 1-AC-41) was mixed with the water in the tank of the extinguisher. Used in the late 1800’s, this type of extinguisher still has variants used today.

Today these water tank/pump extinguishers can be found as Back Pack Water Fire Extinguishers, sometimes called an Indian Pack Ext., it is used in wildland firefighting and generally carries five gallons of water. This type of extinguisher is an oval-sided tank worn on the person’s back using a backpack harness system and has a hose coming from the tank to a hand-operated brass slide pump and nozzle combination.⁴⁹ The first devices were manufactured by D.B. Smith & Company of Utica, New York in the 1920s. Older units have copper water tanks while newer units are made of aluminum or plastic. For those who have worn this type of extinguisher for wildland fires, their weight and uncomfortable harness led them to be sometimes referred to as a “back breaker”.

Another variant of the pump tank water fire extinguisher coming about later in the timeline was the “stored-pressure water extinguisher”, sometimes called the “PW Can” (Pressurized Water Can). This device was for Class A fires and contained 2 ½ gallons of water in an air-pressurized cylinder. The extinguisher could be pressurized through a tire-type valve stem using an air compressor. A top-mounted handle and valve assembly provided control of the agent discharge.⁵⁰

Chemical Foam Extinguisher
Aleksandr Loran, from Russia, invented a chemical foam extinguisher in 1904. It was similar to a soda-acid extinguisher but with different compounds. The container had a solution of ”sodium bicarbonate” activated by “aluminum sulfate” when combined by inverting the extinguisher.”⁵¹ The reaction created a foamy solution encapsulating some of the CO2 in the foam and was also pressurized by the CO2 gas.

Carbon Dioxide Extinguisher
In the early 1900s, Bell Telephone Company (a major U.S. communication company of its time) was seeking an extinguishing device that was electrically non-conductive and left no residue to damage electrical contacts and components in telephone switchboards. In 1924, Walter Kidde & Company invented a carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguisher consisting of a “tall, metal cylinder containing about 7.5 lbs. of CO2 with a hose and expansion nozzle and a wheel valve.”⁵² Carbon Dioxide is stored as a liquid under pressure in the cylinder, and vaporizes to a gas when discharged. Carbon Dioxide extinguishes primarily by smothering the fire by displacing the oxygen with CO2 gas, along with some cooling effect. They became a popular device for fires involving electrically energized equipment because the agent leaves no residue to interfere with or corrode electrical components. Carbon dioxide has limited effectiveness on Class A fires and therefore is not rated for that use.

A variant of the traditional large cylinder CO2 extinguisher was the “Fire Wand” made by Titan Distributing, Inc. around 1950.⁵³ It was a cylinder thirty-one inches in total length by two inches in diameter, with a combination twist valve and a small expansion discharge cone on one end. It only contained one pound, four ounces of CO2. Its effect must have been minimal. Examples that were found had no classification of rating listed on the label.

The most common Carbon Dioxide extinguishers can usually be easily identified by the expansion horn-type nozzle on the discharge hose of the extinguisher. Care should be taken when using this type of extinguisher in enclosed spaces, and the potential for frostbite from touching the expansion horn (other than the insulated handle) or direct contact with the discharged vapor.

The heavy steel cylinders and plain appearance of the CO2 extinguishers make them less desirable to buffs or fire memorabilia collectors. However, they are an important part of fire protection and extinguishing agent history and are commonly found in museum displays.

Dry Chemical Extinguishers

The Dry Chemical/Powder Tube Extinguisher
Previously mentioned was the Larkin Company glass hand fire grenade type extinguisher that contained a dry powder and was used by pouring the powder in a swirling motion above the fire to extinguish it. This was one of the first commercial uses of bicarbonate of soda as a fire extinguishing agent. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, a new type of dry chemical fire extinguisher would come on the market. Just as in other fire extinguishers, once someone developed a design numerous companies sprung up copying and selling a similar device. Sold under various manufacture and device names, the extinguisher consisted of a non-pressurized tin tube cylinder with a pop-off pressed on the inner top and contained primarily bicarbonate of soda mixed with various other ingredients. The tube-type extinguisher came in different sizes, but a common size is approximately 22 inches tall by 2 inches in diameter. This size weighed about three pounds including powder. The device was used by pulling the pull-ring top off and throwing the powder at the base of the flames (supposedly in a manner to sling the powder out of the tube). Most instructions from multiple vendors related not to “sprinkle” the powder. The tin tubes were painted using a lithographic process giving an original bright colored graphic label. Some of these extinguishers can still be found with a fairly well-preserved label image. The better the image the more collectible they are.

Little is known of how successful these extinguishers actually were. However, they may have been the forerunner to what would soon transpire with the invention of the Dugas Fire Extinguisher.

The DuGas and Ansul Story
In the late 1920’s a new type of chemical fire extinguisher would be invented and create a major innovation in extinguishers and fire protection. This new development was part of a “rags to riches” type story. Lodias J. Dugas (a Cajun-French name pronounced “du-gah”), was raised in St. Martinville, Louisiana. Dugas had only a third-grade education and was a bit of a raconteur and self-promoter. In 1927 at the age of 28, Dugas worked as a dry cleaning attendant.⁵⁴ He liked to experiment with chemicals and through accident developed a unique combination of bicarbonate soda which led to the creation of the “dry chemical extinguisher.” He found that this new agent was more efficient at extinguishing petroleum and electrical fires than others on the market. He took his new invention to Chicago’s Underwriters Laboratories for testing. Between 1927 and 1929 Dugas received several patents for his new fire agent, container, and method of extinguishment devices under the name of Du-Gas Fire Extinguisher Corporation, with himself listed as the inventor.⁵⁵

Needing a more experienced manufacturing partner to help develop his product, Dugas entered into a partnership with the Chicago-based Diener MFG Co. Between 1933 and 1938 the Diener-DuGas extinguisher became a dedicated part of the Diener business. They had a successful business and even exhibited at the Hall of Science at the 1933-34 Chicago World’s Fair.⁵⁶ Dugas traveled the United States putting on “live” demonstrations and exhibitions of how his extinguishers excelled at extinguishing various types of fires. Archival photographic film footage now converted to video clips can be found on the internet of some of Dugas’ firefighting demonstrations. These dry chemical extinguishers became very popular in the oil fields and petroleum refining industry. Due to a variety of reasons DuGas dropped its merger with Diener in 1938 and found a new partnership with the Ansul Corporation in Wisconsin. DuGas sold his company to Ansul and retired back to Louisiana. Later in his life, DuGas estimated he had “earned $100 million” from his patents.⁵⁷

These dry chemical extinguishers used a sodium bicarbonate (similar to baking soda) mixed with “chemicals to render it free-flowing and moisture-resistant.”⁵⁸ The extinguisher was effective on flammable liquid and pressurized gas fires. It was also safe to use on electrical fires. The original model extinguisher used an internal CO2 pressurized cartridge that was discharged into the main cylinder when activated, pressurizing the extinguisher and dispersing the agent through a hose and valved nozzle assembly. Later variants had an externally mounted CO2 cartridge on the side of the extinguisher activated by a push pin device. A nitrogen-filled cartridge was used in colder climate applications. Note, that these cartridges have a reverse or “left-handed” thread on them and the connection point to prevent non-approved cartridges from being used.

In addition to the handheld cartridge-operated 20 lb. and 30 lb. fire extinguishers, Dugas would develop larger dry chemical units for the petrochemical industry. These “wheeled-extinguishers” came in 150 and 350 ibs units with a nitrogen bottle to pressurize the device and 100 feet of rubber hose and nozzle.⁵⁹ Despite its size, this extinguisher was still considered hand-portable because it could be rolled on its four-foot diameter wheels by one person to the fire location.

The Ansul company began as part of a logging company in Wisconsin, The business redirected its focus in 1915 to manufacturing “chemicals based on anhydrous sulfur dioxide, hence the name Ansul.”⁶⁰ The company purchased Du-Gas Fire Extinguisher Corporation in 1939 which began a transition from chemical manufacturing to fire safety products by the 1980s. Located in Marinette, Wisconsin, Ansul become a leader in a broad range of fire protection products from consumer model extinguishers, to business and industrial units, to fixed fire protection systems. In 1978 Ansul was acquired by Wormald International which was acquired by Tyco International in 1990. Tyco International’s parent company is Johnson Controls International.⁶¹

Following the Dugas tradition, Ansul began conducting Fire Schools in the 1940s enabling hands-on fire extinguisher training with live fire props at their facility and other fire school locations. As a Fire Instructor at the Louisiana State University Fireman Training Program (LSU/FTP) in the early 1980s, the author coordinated industrial fire brigade training for the petrochemical industry. The Ansul cartridge-operated fire extinguisher was a staple of initial fire protection for this industry throughout the Gulf Coast of the United States. A significant amount of time was spent conducting live fire extinguisher training for industry and responders, shooting thousands of pounds of “BC” dry chemical agent (sodium bicarbonate).

The original Du-Gas or Diener-DuGas extinguishers are a significant part of fire protection history and are highly desirable artifacts by fire museums, fire collectors, and antique dealers.

Dry Chemical Extinguishing Agents
Sodium Bicarbonate continued to be a popular extinguishing agent in both cartridge-operated and stored pressure fire extinguishers being effective on Class B and C fires. In addition, in the 1950s and 60s other dry chemical agents were developed. Monoammonium phosphate provided an acidic-based extinguishing chemical that could be used on Class ABC fires with the ability to encapsulate hot embers of ordinary combustibles preventing rekindling. Potassium bicarbonate, called Purple K because of the purple color of the chemical powder, is an alkaline-based extinguishing agent that is highly effective on petroleum fires and is used in the petrochemical industry. Though dry chemical extinguishers are safe to use on electrically energized equipment, it “is not recommended for electronic equipment or aircraft fires because the substances may damage the equipment beyond repair.”⁶² Because of the acidic or alkaline variation in extinguishing compounds, a different agent than the one specified cannot be used in an existing extinguisher due to potential for chemical reaction and corrosion. Also of note, research indicates that back in the time dry extinguishing compounds were referred to as both dry chemical and dry powder. Today, NFPA and the U.S. extinguisher industry refer to class A, B, and C dry extinguishing agents as dry chemical, while referring to Class D (Combustible metal fires) agents as dry powder.⁶³

Additional Extinguishing Agents
In the 1970s, additional extinguishing agents were developed to meet specialized fire suppression requirements. A number of these agents have been phased out or have restricted use based on environmental or health concerns. New fire classes over time were also added, including Class D for combustible metal fires, and Class K for combustible cooking materials (grease or cooking fires). Today, new fire extinguishing agents continue to be developed and tested to provide effective extinguishment of combustible and flammable hazards while being safe for health and the environment.

Underwriters Laboratories
Underwriters Laboratories’ history begins in 1894 when William Henry Merrill, an electrical engineer from Boston, was retained to inspect and ensure the safety of the “Palace of Electricity” at the World’s Columbian Exposition (World’s Fair) of 1893. This led to the establishment of “a laboratory to test the safety of electrical products which became Underwriters Laboratories [UL].”⁶⁴ Early on UL became involved with testing various fire protection devices including fire extinguishers.

In the early days of fire extinguisher manufacturing industry there was little oversight and advertising claims by manufacturers exaggerated their extinguisher’s effectiveness. One example is related to the Iroquois Theater fire in Chicago in 1903 which claimed 602 lives in under 15 minutes. Besides “electrical malfunctions and flammable materials that caused the fire,” inadequate and useless fire extinguishers allowed the fire to spread quickly before the fire department arrived.⁶⁵ From these types of tragedies, “UL would establish production and chemical standards that finally made the fire extinguisher industry synonymous with reliability.”⁶⁶

Classes of Fire
UL’s testing and fire class rating procedures for extinguishers became a recognized system in the United States. Early on UL established the standard under which they tested and evaluated fire extinguishers. Today UL along with NFPA and ANSI cross reference their fire extinguishing testing procedures and standards. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) was established in 1896 as a nonprofit consensus standards-making organization aimed at life safety and fire protection. The first official standard on fire extinguishers by the NFPA “was adopted in 1921.”⁶⁷ Today their mission is “to help save lives and reduce loss with information, knowledge, and passion.”⁶⁸ The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) was established in 1918 as a nonprofit to develop consensus standards for various products, manufacturing, and workers in the United States.⁶⁹

Based on research, the timeline of fire classification ratings for fire extinguishers seems difficult to piece together. However, it appears early on the ABC classification of fire types and corresponding extinguishers was established through UL. Over time additional classes were added, along with different geometric symbols, and today pictograms are used to indicate for what fire type an extinguisher can be used. Since this chapter is focused on historic fire extinguishers, only the early class ratings will be discussed.

At the time types of fire were divided into three types, Class A, B, and C. Class “A” fires are those “involving ordinary combustibles such as wood.”⁷⁰ Class “B” fires are those involving flammable liquids such as petroleum products and gases. Class “C” fires involve electrically energized equipment. These letters would be placed on the extinguisher to identify as to what type or types of fire the extinguishing agent could be used.

Rating of Extinguishers
In addition to the letter class, UL-listed extinguishers of the time would also have a numerical rating. The number would precede the letter and be based on “the potential size of fire the extinguisher can be expected to suppress.”⁷¹ The Rating system that UL used was “based on reproducible physical tests” on each type and size of extinguisher.⁷² The number 1 was used to designate the size of fire that a water extinguisher could extinguish using one and one-fourth gallons of water. Therefore, a 2 ½ gallon water extinguisher would carry a rating of “2-A” because it contained twice the capacity of a “1-A”.⁷³ The class-A extinguisher would be tested on three class-A fires in separate tests: a wood panel fire, excelsior fire, and a wood crib fire.⁷⁴

The testing for a class – B rating was a more complicated process. It involves a variety of sized burn pans that have a flammable liquid burning over water. The number is based on the square footage of fire extinguished, but factored by 40% since the extinguisher would be expected to be used by a novice and the test used by an experienced operator. As an example a 10-B rated extinguisher “should successfully extinguish 10 square feet of a flammable liquid fire when used by a non-expert operator.”⁷⁵

Extinguishers rated for Class-C fires are not tested against a size of fire and therefore carry no numerical rating. The “C” denotes that the agent used in the extinguisher has been “tested only for electrical non-conductivity.”⁷⁶

Obsolete (Antique) Extinguishers
There are a variety of standards, rules, and regulations promulgated at the local, state, and/or federal level, which govern the manufacturing, maintenance, servicing, and use, of fire extinguishers. In some cases, these regulations and statutes include information on obsolete (antique, vintage, or outdated) fire extinguishers.

It should be understood that this article does not provide the necessary experience, knowledge, practical training, or technical certification one needs to safely restore, service, or handle any type of vintage or obsolete fire extinguisher device. Regarding fire extinguishers and their extinguishing compounds, one should consult qualified personnel regarding their handling, display, or removal and decontamination of any suspected hazardous agent.

Related to obsolete extinguishers, NFPA 10 Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers, section 4.4 deals with “Obsolete Fire Extinguishers.” This section lists 13 types of fire extinguishers that “are considered obsolete and shall be removed from service.”⁷⁷ Item number eleven on this list says: “Any extinguisher manufactured prior to 1955.”⁷⁸ Usually antiques are items considered to be 75 years old or more.

The antique extinguishers that have been discussed in this chapter certainly meet the criteria to be “obsolete” and removed from service. However, just because these extinguishers are no longer acceptable for use as in-service fire extinguishers, doesn’t mean they are illegal to own as an antique display item. Extinguishers that have been properly decommissioned and have had any toxic or hazardous substances removed and properly cleaned should be safe to collect and display as non-functioning extinguishers. Questions regarding potentially hazardous compounds should be referred to the local hazardous waste recycler.

The Legacy of Change and Tradition
Research has not revealed any published books specific to antique fire extinguishers. However, firefighters, fire service buffs, or antique collectors, may find museum collections and archives that may be of assistance in uncovering the history of fire extinguishers, including corresponding photographs, technical drawings, and other data. Other artifacts held in collections and archives are original sales and technical literature from the various fire extinguisher companies that can assist the researcher. A number of fire museums throughout the United States have collections of fire extinguishers and can provide a unique perspective and resource.

In this chapter, the history of the fire extinguisher was reviewed as it related to the early days of the American Fire Service and the beginnings of personnel fire protection for families, businesses, and communities. The historic trial and error of inventions, along with triumphs and failures in the development of fire protection equipment, created new institutes and organizations that would take prominent roles in assuring the proper testing and compliance of equipment to enable the safety of future generations. All this played a role in establishing the traditions and practices that are part of the Fire Service Mission of protecting life and property. 

Fire extinguishers continue to play a role in modern fire protection. Local, state, and federal regulations have established current requirements and standards for modern approved fire extinguishers. These regulations reference the latest in standards and testing, such as the NFPA 10, Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers, along with current UL, and ANSI standards, which guide the inspection, servicing, maintenance, and use of these important safety devices. Also, as always, proper training and preparation in the use of any fire fighting equipment is a critical requirement.

In the home, modern-day fire extinguishers are a part of an overall family fire safety plan. The Fire Extinguisher has the ability to save lives and property by extinguishing incipient fires or controlling a larger fire before the fire department arrives. Make sure your in-service fire extinguisher meets current standards, is charged and within the service date, and is ready for use. However, always remember that because of the potential danger to life from fire, the NFPA recommends the “#1 priority for residents is to get out safely … every household should have a home fire escape plan and working smoke alarms.”⁷⁹

In the study of our fire service history, as it relates to the development of traditions and current procedures, one should not forget the needs of the present and future in providing the latest in equipment and procedures to protect life and property. As stated by the United States Fire Administration’s national safety initiative, Fire Is Everyone’s Fight^®.⁸⁰

Authors Comments
The author wishes to recognize and thank the fire service personnel and organizations for their assistance in the development of this article. In particular, the author expresses his appreciation to:

Cutis Peters, Board Chair Vintage Fire Museum, Jeffersonville, IN; J.B. Lesher, Fire Protection Business Owner and Trainer, Louisville, KY; and the University of Missouri Ellis Library/Lending Library for assisting the author in obtaining the inter-library loan of various research documents and archival materials.

The author also wishes to recognize all the various Historians and Authors for their extensive and invaluable work in Fire Service History through artifact notes, articles, and books that have been used for research purposes by the author and footnoted in this series. May their work continue to endure the ages and preserve the true history and traditions of the American Fire Service.

The A Part of Fire Service History Series articles are copyrighted © 2023 – 2024 by the author and are published under permission granted to the FFAM.

Endnotes

1. Herbert T. Jenness, Bucket Brigade to Flying Squadron: Fire Fighting Past and Present, Geo. H. Ellis Company, Boston, Mass., 1909, p. 1.
2. Robert V. Masters, Pictorial History of Fire Fighting, revised edition, Vastle Books, Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 1967, p. 6.
3. John Kenlon, Fires and Fire Fighters, A history of Modern Fire-Fighting with a Review of Its Development from Earliest Times, Original: George H. Doran Company, New York, 1913, Republished by: Forgotten Books, London, 2018, p. 14.
4. Good Reads, Stephen Hawking, Quotes, Quotable Quote, from Brief Answers to the Big Questions, Bantam Books, New York, 2018, Webpage accessed June 15, 2024, https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/9550960-the-world-has-been-changing-even-faster-as-people-devices#:~:text=When%20we%20invented%20fire%2C%20we,only%20chance%20we%20will%20get.
5. Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S. Fire Administration, Fire Is Everyone’s Fight®, a registered logo of FEMA/USFA, 2024, https://www.usfa.fema.gov/prevention/fief/ .
6. William Dwight Whitney, PhD, LLD, “fire extinguisher”, The Century Dictionary: An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the English Language, Vol. VIII, The Century Co., New York, NY, 1904, p. 2229, web accessed through Biodiversity Heritage Library, June 12, 2024, https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/52494063. 
7. Ralph W. Burklin, and Robert G. Purington, “Fire Extinguisher”, National Fire Protection Association’s (NFPA) Fire Terms, A Guide To Their Meaning and Use, NFPA, Boston, MA, 1980, p. 66.
8. Author’s terminology defining a broad range of historic to current Fire Extinguishers found in the United States dating from around 1800 to 1980s. Due to the broad range of historical technology, this definition is not inclusive of all fire extinguishing devices or extinguishing agents.
9. Frederick M. Stowell, Project Manager/Writer, and Lynne Murnane, Senior Editor, Essentials of Fire Fighting and Fire Department Operations, Six Edition, International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA), Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University, 2013, p. 212.
10. Ibid.
11. Ralph W. Burklin, and Robert G. Purington, “Fire Tetrahedron”, National Fire Protection Association’s (NFPA) Fire Terms, A Guide To Their Meaning and Use, NFPA, Boston, MA, 1980, p. 71.
12. Ripley, George, and Dana Charles A., Editors, The New American Cyclopedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge, Vol. VII, “Fire Engine”, New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1872, p. 516. Accessed through Google Books, Jan. 20, 2023, https://books.google.com/books?id=TulDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA516&lpg=PA516&dq=ox+gut+used+as+fire+hose&source=bl&ots=6buVWz4dwv&sig=ACfU3U1w0kIq9i-xbIoqIx3-2oTb7tE8Jw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjRw6eltdf8AhX1kIkEHUafBdg4FBDoAXoECAIQAw#v=onepage&q=ox%20gut%20used%20as%20fire%20hose&f=false.
13. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “Ctesibius Of Alexandria”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 26 Feb. 2024, web article accessed 18 June 2024, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ctesibius-of-Alexandria. 
14. Wikipedia contributors, ‘Firefighting apparatus’, Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 7 May 2024, Web article accessed June 18, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Firefighting_apparatus&oldid=1222730980.
15. Jenelle Alcantara, “The Firefighters of Ancient Rome”, Macquarie University Department of Ancient History – City Of Rome, © 2018, web article accessed June 21, 2024, https://ancient-history-blog.mq.edu.au/cityOfRome/Vigiles.
16. Ibid.
17. Joe Burgett, “40 Ancient Greek Technology and Concepts Still Used Today” (20 Fire Hose), Science Sensei, 2020, web article accessed Jan. 23, 2023 https://sciencesensei.com/40-ancient-greek-technology-and-concepts-still-used-today/21/. 
18. “Heron of Alexandria”, Ancient Greece Reloaded, web article accessed Jan. 20, 2023, https://www.ancientgreecereloaded.com/files/ancient_greece_reloaded_website/great_persons/heron_of_alexandria.php. Thomas Ewbank, A Descriptive and Historical Account of Hydraulic and Other Machines for Raising Water, Ancient and Modern; Including the Progressive Development of the Steam Engine. London: Tilt and Bogue, Fleet Street, 1842, p. 312. Accessed through Google Books Jan. 20, 2023, https://books.google.com/books?id=Mi8aAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR13&lpg=PR13&dq=greek+heron+fire+hose.&source=bl&ots=4cOrDjcphj&sig=ACfU3U2UYmvgu3RWQFkTfmOpAaiMkgCWIA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiKxYTAgtn8AhUnnGoFHY_1ApQ4FBDoAXoECAUQAw#v=onepage&q=greek%20heron%20fire%20hose.&f=false.
19. Charles F.T. Young, C.E., Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades: A History of Manual and Steam Fire Engines, London: Lockwood & Co., 1866, p. 336, accessed through Google Books, https://www.google.com/books/edition/Fires_Fire_Engines_and_Fire_Brigades_wit/YblbAAAAcAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=hand
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21. Herbert Theodore Jenness, Bucket Brigade to Flying Squadron: Fire Fighting Past and Present, p 5.
22. Councillor Wendt, “Chemical Fire Extinguishers, Apparatus May Throw Water Mixed With Ingredients to Quench Even Large Conflagrations”, Scientific American Supplement, Volume LXXVII, No. 1991, February 28, 1914, copyright 1914, p. 189.
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26. David A. Fryxell, “History Matters: Fire Extinguishers”, Family Tree Magazine, December 2014, website: https://familytreemagazine.com/history/history-matters-fire-extinguishers/#:~:text=French%20inventor%20Fran%C3%A7ois%20Carlier%20eliminated,and%20provided%20its%20own%20propellant. 
27. Brown, W. H., “tartaric acid.” Encyclopedia Britannica, April 17, 2016. https://www.britannica.com/science/tartaric-acid.
28. W. Fred Conway, Chemical Fire Engines, Fire Buff House, New Albany, Indiana, 1987, p.11.
29. M.W. Goodman, M.D., Inventing the American Fire Engine, An Illustrated History of Patented Ideas for Fire Pumpers, Fire Buff House Publishing, New Albany, Indiana, 1994, p. 93.
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31. R.O. Matson, “Course of Instruction in Fire Protection”, Fire Engineering, Vol. 79, Issue 24, December 25, 1926, website archive: https://www.fireengineering.com/leadership/course-of-instruction-in-fire-protection-22/.
32. W. Fred Conway, Chemical Fire Engines, p. 11.
33. Ibid.
34. Russel Swanson, Director, “Letter of Clarification Regarding 29 CFR, Section 1926.150(c)(1)(ix)” (Soda Acid Extinguishers), Occupational Safety and Health Administration, U.S. Department of Labor, 2000, corrected 6/2/2005, web resource retrieved June 18, 2024, https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/standardinterpretations/2000-07-12-1.
35. David McCormick, “Vintage Fire Grenades: History and Value”, Kovels Antique Trader, updated Feb. 26, 2024, web article accessed June 15, 2024, https://www.antiquetrader.com/collectibles/fire-grenades-history-and-collectability. 
36. Ibid.
37. Sophie Walter, Assistant Curator, “The beauty and danger in Victorian Glass Fire Grenades”, Museum Crush, London Fire Brigade Museum, Oct. 20. 2023, web article accessed June 10, 2024, https://museumcrush.org/the-beauty-and-danger-in-victorian-glass-fire-grenades/.
38. David McCormick, “Vintage Fire Grenades: History and Value”.
39. Sophie Walter, Assistant Curator, “The beauty and danger in Victorian Glass Fire Grenades”.
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. David McCormick, “Vintage Fire Grenades: History and Value”. 
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. AAA Fire Protection Resources, Inc., “The Fire Extinguisher: A Brief History”, Lawrenceville, GA, 2024, web article accessed June 5, 2024, https://aaafirepro.com/2021/12/the-fire-extinguisher-a-brief-history/#:~:text=The%20first%20recorded%20fire%20extinguisher,the%20solution%20around%20the%20fire.
47. Admin, “A Brief History of Fire Extinguishers”, Online Safety Trainer, Nevada Technical Associates, Inc., Henderson, Nevada , 2020-2023, web article accessed June 18, 2024, 1https://www.onlinesafetytrainer.com/a-brief-history-of-fire-extinguishers/ 
48. Ibid.
49. John D. Page, Editor, Forcible Entry, Rope and Portable Extinguisher Practices, 6th Edition, International Fire Service Training Association, Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University, 1978, p.174-175.
50. Ibid, p.176.
51. Admin, “A Brief History of Fire Extinguishers”, Online Safety Trainer.
52. AAA Fire Protection Resources, Inc., “The Fire Extinguisher: A Brief History”.
53. “1950’S Titan Firewand Mid Century Fire Extinguisher”, WorthPoint Corp., Cape Coral, FL, 2024, web article accessed June 25, 2024, https://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/1950s-titan-firewand-mid-century-fire-152221136. 
54. Andrew Clayman, “Geo. W. Diener MFG Co., est. 1899”, Made in Chicago Museum, 2024, web article accessed June 18, 2024, https://www.madeinchicagomuseum.com/single-post/geo-w-diener/. 
55. Google Patents Search, “Lodias J Dugas Gas Fire Extinguisher Corp”, web page accessed June 18, 2024, https://patents.google.com/?q=(Lodias)&inventor=J+Dugas&assignee=Gas+Fire+Extinguisher+Corp&oq=Lodias+J+Dugas+Gas+Fire+Extinguisher+Corp+.
56. Gloria P. Cahill, “Where There’s Smoke, There’s Ansul”, Industry Today, Vol. 3, Issue 6, Sept. 26, 2000, Charleston, SC, 2024, web article accessed June 18, 2024, https://industrytoday.com/where-theres-smoke-theres-ansul/. 
57. Ibid.
58. Admin, “A Brief History of Fire Extinguishers”, Online Safety Trainer.
59. “The First Line of Defense’, Diener-Dugas Extinguisher Corp. Catalog, Chicago, IL, https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/ead/pdf/century0494.pdf. 
60. Gloria P. Cahill, “Where There’s Smoke, There’s Ansul”. 
61. Wikipedia contributors, “Ansul,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, October 15, 2023, web article accessed June 18, 2024, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ansul&oldid=1180180437.
62. Admin, “A Brief History of Fire Extinguishers”, Online Safety Trainer.
63. Technical Committee on Portable Fire Extinguishers, Nathaniel J. Addleman, Chair, NFPA 10 Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers, 2022, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2022, section 3.3.9. 
64. Arthur E. Cote, P.E., FSFPE, “History of Fire Protection Engineering”, Our History, UNIFORMED EMTS, PARAMEDICS & FIRE INSPECTORS FDNY – LOCAL 2507, Fire Department of New York, https://local2507.com/about-local-2507/our-history/.
65. Engineering Progress, The Revolution and Evolution of Working for a Safer World, Underwriters Laboratories, Ideapress Publishing, 2016, p. 36, web book, https://www.ul.com/sites/default/files/2019-05/EngineeringProgress.pdf. 
66. Ibid, p. 44.
67. Technical Committee on Portable Fire Extinguishers, Nathaniel J. Addleman, Chair, “Origin and Development of NFPA 10”, NFPA 10 Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers, 2022, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2022. 
68. “About Us”, National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), Boston, MA, 2024, https://www.nfpa.org/About-NFPA.
69. “About ANSI”, American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Washington, DC, 2024, https://www.ansi.org/about/introduction. 
70. John D. Page, Editor, Forcible Entry, Rope and Portable Extinguisher Practices, 6th Edition, p.150.
71. Ibid, p. 151.
72. Ibid.
73. Ibid.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid, p. 155.
76. Ibid.
77. Technical Committee on Portable Fire Extinguishers, Nathaniel J. Addleman, Chair, NFPA 10 Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers, 2022, section 4.4. 
78. Ibid.
79. “Fire Extinguisher Information”, National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), © 2024, web article accessed June 18, 2024, https://www.nfpa.org/education-and-research/home-fire-safety/fire-extinguishers.
80. Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S. Fire Administration, Fire Is Everyone’s Fight®, a registered logo of FEMA/USFA, 2024, https://www.usfa.fema.gov/prevention/fief/ .